Sport

In Mark Yosts book, Tailgating, Sacks, and Salary Caps, the author discusses the ways in which the NFL has taken over the sports world and created the most successful sports league in American history. The author touches on the transformation that the NFL has taken, both on the field and off the field. More importantly, he traces the ways in which this transformation has helped the NFL to gain all-important market share both with television audiences and fans at the stadium.

The work touches on a number of key strategies that the NFL has implemented, starting first with its dedication to parity. Its revolutionary salary cap and draft structure allows for enhanced parity, giving every team a chance to compete over a five-year window. Teams that are bad are given advantages and with proper management, they can make a run again. This has helped to bring more fans to the game, as they legitimate feel as if their team has a chance.

Additionally, the league has reached out to non-mainstream fans with its marketing approach. It has turned its largest events  Monday Night Football and the Super Bowl  into events, rather than just football games. The NFL is somewhat inclusive, meaning that they dont want your entire week or even your entire day. Instead, they seek to pull in non-football fanatics for those three-hour windows where football provides excellent television entertainment.

Additionally, the NFL positioned itself for success with its innovative satellite package and its embrace of fantasy football. The league has been looking for ways to include people, and whether it is willing to admit it or not, including football bettors and fantasy football players has helped to fuel the popularity of the league. Though the NFL does not officially associate itself with gambling of any kind, it has readily created an association with games like fantasy sports and its satellite packages have fueled the sports bar craze with the NFL.

Additionally, the league has sought to develop personalized relationships with its fans. It listens to what fans want and it is constantly making changes that will benefit the fan experience. This includes both on television, with new inventions like the first down line on the screen and with other implementations at the stadium. The NFL understands that the fan is what drives it, and the league seeks to reach out to both casual and hardcore fans in different ways.

These strategies are important and they form the basis for the NFLs long-term success in dominating the sports industry.

Implementation of similar strategies in other sports
Major League Baseball has attempted to adopt one of the strategies in order to bring in more interested fans. The league has reached out to fantasy sports players, providing fantasy updates in a number of different mediums. The league began by adding a fantasy section to its website, promoting news and offering players the chance to see what was going on. Additionally, it has added fantasy games to its website, and it has added mobile game updates for fantasy players. This effort has helped to turn fantasy baseball into a multi-billion dollar industry, with more than four million players at the current time. In this, one could say that baseball has been success in implementing this strategy originally adopted by the NFL.

NCAA football has attempted to do some of the things the NFL has done with its reaching out to fans. One could argue that the much-maligned Bowl Championship Series came about as a result of dissatisfaction with the old system employed by the NCAA. Fans indicated that they wanted a way to determine a true champion, so the NCAA took action in creating the BCS. Assessing the effectiveness of the BCS is somewhat difficult, as it has been successful at pitting the best teams against one another. This was not the ultimate solution that fans were looking for, though, so it has been received distastefully. Fans wanted a playoff system, and they feel as if the BCS is not providing a true champion, though it is better than the old system.

Application of Strategies
Though Major League Baseball is a successful league, it is not truly reaching its potential. Given its place in the heart of the American public and the large degree of skilled players in the game today, the league would be well served to adopt even more of the strategies mentioned in Yosts book. A report by Sharony, Haupert, and Knowles speaks to the need for competitive balance in Major League Baseball. They write, Competitive balance is important. Studies have shown that when the uncertainty of the outcome of games decreases, so does attendance. Lack of competitive balance is not only a problem for the losers, but is a problem for the dominant (high revenue) teams as well (Sharony, Haupert,  Knowles, 1992). Though the league has seen a number of teams make the playoffs and win the World Series, a degree of competitive imbalance exists. Large market teams like the Yankees, Red Sox, Angels, and Dodgers still dominate the playoff scene, while the have-nots are forced to struggle. Poor management is a huge part of the problem, but baseball would be well suited to set up some sort of salary cap system to bring teams closer together. This could increase interest, as division races would tighten up. As La Croix points out, this is something that has not only worked in the NFL, but it has worked in baseball in Japan (La Croix, 1999).

Paul Kagan indicates, as well, that baseball is in need of more connection with its fans (Kagan, 1999). The league currently suffers from severe disconnect with its fans, and it does little to reach out to casual fans. Though it has provided fantasy things for hardcore baseball fans, few people watch baseball games on Sunday or Monday nights as they do with the NFL. The league would be well served to adopt the NFLs policy of making the game right for TV. The league should listen to its fans and shorten games, making the action more conducive to good television. This would provide the league with a golden opportunity to reach out to those people who are just seeking good entertainment. Given its already existent place in the hearts of the American public, baseball should put its inherent advantages to good use through more effective television packaging. This would bring in more viewers and create more advertising revenue for the league to share among its teams. This would also help to fix the competitive balance issue, as mentioned previously.

Thesis
Football is among the topmost popular sports in the modern world and is characterized as an intermittent, high intensity and non-continuous exercise. However, there is still a lot of debate and uncertainty surrounding the sports physiological requirements as a result of the overemphasis of skills which lead to the neglect of physical fitness, difficulty in scientific study of the sports as well as the conservative training methods that are mainly employed in the development and training of professional players. There has been an evolutionary trend in the professional football such as changes in the roles that players have, a greater frequency of fixtures to play and new tactics and strategies that continue to increase the all round fitness demands for players. This paper thus wishes to explore periodization theory and methodology in the professional training and development of football players with specific focus on physiological perspectives. The research theorizes that the utilization of specialization training that is based on a comprehensive multilateral foundation is the most effective training method necessary to develop a professional football player.

Introduction
Professional football training and development is a process that should be governed by the principles of training. The core objective of these processes is top increase the footballers sporting skills and ultimately hisher level of sporting performance. Professional football training and development has to cover the various performance aspects or components that are normally employed by a player in a match. These include tactical, technical, socialpsychological and fitness training.  In order for an athlete to compete as a professional football player from a physiological perspective, they need to have high levels of fitness so as to cope with the physical demands that the game requires as well as be able to utilize their technical abilities throughout the whole game. As such fitness training is an important part of the professional footballers training programme. The most important characteristic of a football fitness training program is that it should closely resemble match-play as much as possible. As such the main part of the training for fitness exercise should incorporate a football as this has several advantages. Firstly, the players are able to develop tactical and technical skills under similar conditions to those that they will be subjected to during a match. Secondly, this trains the specific muscle groups that are used when paying football. And finally this has been known to provide greater motivation for players as opposed to training without the ball (Ekblom, 1994, p.124).

Type of Training to be applied
The overall development of the player should strike a balance between specialized training and multilateral development. As such, the earlier stages of training and development should be based on multilateral development which mainly targets the players overall physical development. As the player becomes more developed, the component of specialized training specific to skills needed in football steadily increases. As such the trainer or coach should have a clear understanding of the need for each of the two training stages and how the focus from one to the other changes as the player develops (Bompa  Haff, 2009, p. 31).

It is important to incorporate multilateral development in the formative periods of training program that wishes to develop and form a professional footballer. This is because it lays the ground work for the later steps in training that will be more specialized. The proper implementation of this principle will enable the player to have a developed physiological basis that is essential for optimized performance necessary for professional football. This will ensure that the player has a high level of technical mastery as well as the physical preparation that translate to higher performance levels. The coach or trainer should avoid being tempted to ignore multilateral training for specialized training especially when the player becomes technically adept early in the process of training and development as this may compromise the players ability to sustain their optimal physical form once they get into professional football (Bompa  Haff, 2009, p. 32).

A sequential approach to the development of the player that progresses from the multilateral training to specialization is essential as the player matures so as to maximize their sporting potential. The multilateral stage includes multisport skills, some football specific skills and multifaceted motor development. As such the player undertakes a variety of exercises that allows himher to fully develop hisher physiological system. For example, this phase of training allows the cardiovascular, neuromuscular and the energy systems to be activated in a number of ways. It is only when the player attains an acceptable level of development can him her progress to the next phase which involves more specialization. It is important to note that this stage of development does not exclude specificity in its elements of training and on the contrary aspects of specificity of training should be maintained in all the stages of the training and development program although in varying proportions. Thus at this level specialization is minimal but increases in percentage as the player matures. This helps the player to have a foundation necessary for future development and also helps himher to avoid staleness and overuse injury in future training and match-play (Bompa  Haff, 2009, p. 32).

The adoption of a comprehensive multilateral phase in training and development should be capable of ensuring that the player is best suited for a professional career in football. Although the improvement of performance is slow at the beginning it  gradual increases to peak at eighteen or older, an age when the player has reached psychological as well as physiological maturity and can be able to better handle the pressures of playing professionally. It also allows for progressive and consistent performance in competitions as well as a longer athletic career. Overall physiological development as well as a more progressive loading pattern results in fewer injuries for the player (Bompa Haff, 2009, p. 34).

Once the player is sufficiently developed, the training and development starts the specialization phase which is mainly non-unilateral. This training allows the player to adapt physiologically to football. Specific adaptation involves areas such as the metabolic demand, movement demands, muscle recruitment patterns, contraction type and force generation pattern. Also note that the type of training employed has very specific effects on the players physiological characteristics. For example, resistance training has effects ranging from alterations of the neuromuscular system, metabolic or bioenergetics pathways, and the contractile machinery. Conversely endurance training is capable of stimulating both the peripheral as well as the central adaptations, which include the modification of a players metabolic and bioenergetics factors, altering patterns of neural recruitment and stimulating alterations of skeletal muscle significantly. Contemporary research done on athletes has shown that the skeletal muscles exhibit largely characteristics of plasticity in response to different types of endurance and resistance training resulting in the deactivation or activation of the different signaling pathways on a  molecular level depending on the type of exercise the player is subjected to (Bompa  Haff, 2009, p. 35).

The overall fitness training programme should incorporate elements of intermittency, randomness and dynamism. Although this may make the training and development process of professional footballers seem complex it is absolutely necessary so as to condition them to the conditions of match-play. As such the training should involve randomly sequenced physiological processes. This proves to be a challenge for coaches in their quest to condition and develop players. However, players should be involved in training programs that offers specialization that is based on multilateral training at the beginners stage. The specialization phase is characterized by a progressive increase in intensity and total volume of training as well as the degree of specialization. Specialization in simple terms describes exercise training that mimic or parallel movement in football while the multilateral phase describes exercises that develop endurance, speed and strength. Many researchers have suggested that the best adaptation to training and development of a professional football player occur as a result if exercise specific and that utilizes the football and also exercise that is targeted at specific bio-motor abilities but only after a multilateral foundation has been comprehensively developed (Da Silva, Bloomfield  Marins, 2008).

The fitness training and development programme should consider multiple factors so as to cover the various physical performance aspects that are required in football. As such the training needs to be divided into components that are based on specific physical demands that footballers experience during a match. Players experience varying exercise intensity during a training session as well as during matches. As such, the training must incorporate aerobic, anaerobic as wells specific muscle training. These two terms focus on the energy pathways that are dominant when participating in actual activity, either in training or in a match. Anaerobic and aerobic training represent exercise intensities above and below the maximum oxygen intake, respectively (Reilly  Williams, 2003, p.47).

Physiological state necessary for the success of a professional football player
A professional football player covers a mean distance of approximately eleven kilometers in a ninety minutes game. This value is not representative of the total energy requirements on the player during a game since in addition to running a walking, the footballer also has to perform other activities that are energy demanding. These activities include changing direction, acceleration and deceleration, static muscle contraction, jumping, tackling and rising from the ground among others. The total energy expenditure is therefore determined by all the physiological factors in play that affect the footballer. Experiments done on elite players have shown that out of the total energy contribution in the maximal oxygen intake, 70  is derived from aerobic sources (Tumilty, 1993).

As such the training programs of elite players emphasize on training at such average exercise intensity for at least ninety minutes in order to emphasize the players ability to perform intermittent exercise for prolonged periods, in other words, enhance endurance. In addition a professional player should be capable of performing consistently at high intensity, sprint and develop a high power output (force) necessary for single match situations, for example, jumping, tackling and kicking. The basis for optimal performance in these categories is characterized by fitness in aspects of cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance and strength combined with interplay of coordination by the nervous system. These characteristics determined genetically but can as well be developed through proper training (Spinks, Reilly  Murphy, 2002, p.53).

Factors affecting efficiency in training and developing of football players
Factors affecting the development and training of players include most importantly factors that the coach and the player can influence such as the players physical abilities anaerobic power, aerobic capacity, strengthspeed, agilityflexibility and coordination. Players Technical and tactical skills controlpassing, tacklingshooting, knowledgecreativity and anticipation. Players Psychological factors confidence, motivation, arousal, concentration. The players current status such as injuries being experienced, nutritional levels and psychological stability is also a factor in play during training. Factors that the coach or player do not have control over such as environmental and social factors such as the coach or trainer, family, friends, the climate, playing surface.  Other factors include the gender of the player and the genetic endowment (Reilley  Korkusuz, 2008)

Methodology
Data for this study will be drawn from field work, documentary analysis and both formal and informal interviews. Also previous research as well as official publication from relevant bodies governing football will form the starting point for the inquiry relevant to this research. To understand the best method for training and developing professional football players, field observations will be carried out on three professional academies and three non professional teams in the United Kingdom that carter for youths wishing to join the senior teams. Data will also be gathered in these situations using formal and informal methods (Holmes 1991, p.20).

The data will then be analyses using the comparative investigation of physical education and sport developed by Holmes (1991). This will be with a view to suggest solutions to currently apparent problem and offer future programme improvements to the way training and developing professional footballers is currently practiced (Holmes, 1991,p 27).

Developing healthy attitudes, confidence, and composure are key elements for succeeding in sports. Apparently these elements can only be achieved through a purposive study of athletes behaviors and attitudes with a view to identifying and promoting positive facets of such attitudes and behaviors while discarding the negatives ones (Weinberg Gould, 2009). Encompassed in the large domain of sports psychology, this purposive study of athletes attitudes and behaviors helps to identify and correct those mental barriers such as fear, low self-esteem, concentration, and anxiety that bar them from succeeding in sporting competitions. Collectively, sound sports psychology strategies are capable of not only turning failing athletes into instant champions but they can as well work with significant success in team situations. Even so, this can only be made a reality if the athletes have got the will power to apply the principles of sports psychology and coaching as well as being ready to up their game every time they take part in a competition (Caruso, 2004).

In essence sports psychology cuts across the perceived conventional sports training techniques that involve individual andor group guided training by a qualified trainer. As a matter of fact, it deviates from the norms of the conventional sports training in that it involves the use of a series of mental toughness skills that are aimed at instilling a winning mentality in athletes or even a team (McCaughey, 2001).  As such, a sports psychology coach may not necessarily be a team coach unless in special circumstances where a team coach may be multitalented (Weinberg Gould, 2009). To explore the practical impacts of sports psychology on individual as well as group situations, this paper will cover a report on the results of a practical basketball shooting (lay-ups) exercise involving a set of 24 participants in individual and group situations. Based on this information as well as from the practical exercise results discussions, this paper holds that, indeed guided mental toughness training can positively influence the overall performance of an athlete.

Methodology
Participants
The practical exercise involved a total of twenty four same gender participants selected on a voluntary basis from various high schools. The gist of the practical exercise was to investigate the extent which the participants could carry out basketball lay-up shots with their non-dominant hand without practice and after practicing in groups.

Procedure
The exercise involved three parts (A, B, and C). In part A the participants were required to complete ten basketball lay-up shots without practice using their non-dominant hand. Each successful basket earned 5 points, a failed basket that hit the backboard or ring earned 2 points, while a failed that did not hit the backboard or ring earned 0 points. The maximum score was 50 points that was also used as the baseline. In Part B the participants were randomly divided into three groups and required to practice this technique of shooting for a period of 15 minutes either in a massed or distributed practice. Group A used a massed practice that continued without stopping, group B used distributed practice that involved 1 - 3  5 minutes with a two minutes break in between each set. Group C also used a distributed practice, however, theirs consisted of 2-3  5 minutes with a 2 minutes break in between the sets. The results for each of the sets were given during the rest time. In Part C the participants were required to take part in a similar to Part A, ten basket lay-up shots with their non-dominant hand with the score recorded out of 50. The results for this part formed the post-practice score.

Data Analysis
Score for the individual and group situations were recorded in a spread sheet. They were statistically analyzed to find out key co-relations and deviations. The individual scores were entered for the ten trials both in the pre-practice and post-practice parts.  Scores for each group were entered. The percentage change was noted and the group and individual mean and standard deviation were calculated with the results used to construct a bar graph juxtaposing the pre-practice and post-practice performance.

Results
The pre-practice score performance for almost all the participants was significantly low when compared with the post-practice performance. This is evidential in the total scores for all the 24 participants, where the pre-practice total score was 698 points when compared to the post-practice 798 points. This observation is supported by the mean score for the post-practice score which was relatively was bigger, at 33.25 when compared to the pre-practice score, at 29.0833. From a group perspective it was evident that group 3 had the greatest improvement than the other two groups, with its pre-practice score standing at 197 points and the post-practice score at 244 points a 24 percentage increase. Group 2 had a pre-practice score of 219 points and a post-practice score of 255 points a 16 percent improvement while group A had a pre-practice score of 282 and post-practice of 299 points, a two percent increase. This observation is also supported by the change of the mean score with group 3 having the greatest difference, at 26.2 for its pre-practice score and 34.857 for its post-practice score. As expected group 1 has the smallest mean score difference, at 31.3333 for its pre-practice and 33.22222 for its post-practice. Overall, the participants pre-practice and post-practice results were not consistent some participants dropped points even after practicing in groups, for example participants 2, 5, 11, 15, 17, 20, and 23. PLEASE SEE TABLE AND GRAPH FROM THE EXCEL ATTACHMENT

DiscussionsConclusion
The results indicated a significant difference between the pre-practice and post-practice performance for both individual and group situations. This reflected in the huge improvement of 100 lay-up shots for the total shots made by all the participants from pre-practice and post-practice performance. It was apparent that after practicing in group situations the participants were able to gain some confidence, concentration, and composure. The relatively poor performance in making successful baskets in the pre-practice session can be explained by the fact that the participants were a little bit scary or just apprehensive others maybe have lacked the required concentration to go for successful lay-up shots using their non-dominant hand. This is a common phenomenon among athletes especially those who lack the appropriate mental toughness skills (Caruso, 2004). However, after practicing the skill in groups they gained positive attitudes as well as strong mentalities capable of holding their interest and attention and therefore performing the lay-up shots with much precision. That at least seven participants dropped indicates that they did not have the will power to learn and apply new skills of mental toughness. It is evident that they loosed their concentration at some point through their performance maybe due to anxiety, lack of composure, or even lack of confidence (Weinberg Gould, 2009). This can also be explained by the fact that they may have not been ready to up their game every time they take part in a competition.  Moreover, those dropped points may not be having the appropriate skills in lay-up shots using their non-dominant hands. This is because the success of sports psychology is wholly dependent on the athletes proficiency in a given sport (McCaughey, 2001).

Violence in soccer or football is otherwise referred to as soccer hooliganism. It is unruly and destructive actions mostly buy football fans. This is violence between fans of rival football teams. Violence in football can take place either before or after a match, but it is usually common after a match. In some cases the fights take place away from the stadium for fear of getting arrested (Sciolino, para 3). During the times when they erupt in the stadium, during or immediately after the match in the stadium or the surroundings, they are usually spontaneous. These kinds of violence range from simple exchange of words to severe riots. During such violence, a lot of people have lost their lives while others are left with severe injuries that end up maiming them. Destruction of property is another serious impact of football hooliganism. In some cases, police officers have intervened, leaving some dead and others injured. There are situations where the rivalry goes on even in the pitch. Sometimes players get very aggressive and run into the pitch as the game goes on. In other cases supporters hurl abuses to the players rendering it impossible for them to deliver. The problem is worse when the supporters starts attacking others and tries to get to the players. There are cases where supporters go after the players immediately the game ends (Nicholls, p. 25). There are situations where the rivalry goes on even in the pitch. Sometimes players get very aggressive and run into the pitch as the game goes on. In other cases supporters hurl abuses to the players rendering it impossible for them to deliver. The problem is worse when the supporters starts attacking others and tries to get to the players. There are cases where supporters go after the players immediately the game ends (Mosely, p 18).    

A football firm is an organised organisation to fight with fans of other football clubs. Some firms, mostly in Europe have been associated with racial hatred. Others have been associated with anti-racism. Violence in football has been shown in movie like I.D, Cass, Green Street Hooligans, and The Football Factory among others (Hill, para 6). Some critics of these films have argued that the depiction by the media fuels the situation. This paper investigates football hooliganism in Europe and seeks to find out how these can be reduced and how better to watch football without violence (Nicholls, p 52).

History of violence in football
The very initial instance of football violence is not known. This is because a lot of football matches have taken place around the world for very many years. Nevertheless, football has been marked with chaos since its inception. Cases of football violence can be traced back to the middle ages in Europe. In the year 1314, Edward II placed a ban on football. This was because of the conviction that violence in football could culminate to social unrest. In the medieval period, soccer games involved conflicts between rival towns or villages. These conflicts were used as methods for settling old scores (Sciolino, para 6).

The actions that could be associated with football hooliganism emanated from England in the beginning of the 1960s. In the modern game, the initial accounted case of violence in soccer took place in 1880s in the United Kingdom (Nawrat and Hutchings, p 72). This was the period where fans would terrorise neighbourhoods attacking referees and opposing fans. In the year 1885, following a defeat of Aston Villa by Preston North End in friendly game, there was violence between the funs of the two teams. In the year 1886, the supporters of Queens Park were attacked by those of Preston. This marked the beginning of football violence away from the stadium (Mosely, p 19).    

There is a history of rivalry between Millwall and West Ham United. During the time when Millwall was founded, it was believed to be the most powerful team in the region. The team was referred to as the Lions of the South after a while, another team, Thames Ironwork FC was established. The two teams continued to compete amid healthy rivalry. When the Thames Ironwork FC grew it moved out to play outside home and was later named West Ham United (Belton, p 2). While the fame of Millwall was falling, its rival was rising in popularity. When the depression set in, workers failed to get paid and there was a strike. The two teams stayed for a long time without meeting and the tension between them cooled. The two clubs met for a number of health games. This did not last long because in the 1960s, there was new tension between the East and the South (Nawrat and Hutchings, p 82). There was increased violence in football, and when the two teams met, it was time for the two enemy gangs, the Krays and Richardsons, to settle scores. The next time the two teams met, the chaos became more, this time with loss of lives from both sides. There were some aspects that were common between the two teams. They both had strong supporters that were very passionate about their teams. Both possessed the old London values. The supporters could be seriously hurt and still come back for more. There is thus a history of hatred between these two teams that went beyond the game. In its part, Chelsea and Millwall began meeting in the 1980s (Belton, p 24).

Incidents of violence in history
There have been very many recorded incidents of violence in football both inside and outside the stadium. In 1984, a fan of Tottenham was shot dead and about 200 supporters apprehended after chaos erupted before the EUFA Cup final (Nawrat and Hutchings, p 94).  This took place in Brussels in a match between Tottenham and Anderlencht. The following year at the same place, there was a disaster in the Heysel stadium. This was a major issue because it led to the loss of 39 lives before the European Cup finals between Liverpool and Juventus. The 1989 example is even worse that that of 1985 because in this case, 95 people lost their lives with more than 200 getting injured. This was during the English FA Cup between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. These series of clashes and conflicts continued all through the 90s up to date. However, it is apparent though that the rate of death decreased from the 80s moving on forward. All the recorded conflicts in the 1990s up to date, only one or two people died (Hill para 9). In 1995, a 17-year-old fun was killed after a match between Fenerbance and Galasaray. In 2006, a police officer shot dead a supporter and injured another in a UEFA Cup game. In the year 2007, there was a match suspended after is killed during clashes between supporters of Catania and Palermo (Nicholls, p 29).

Possible causes of violence
Unlike in the past, present-day violence in football is as a result of many factors. The media coverage in the modern football is more than it used to be 40 years ago. Media representatives are always present during every match. Since the 60s, media has been sent to the stadium to capture the actions of the spectators as much as the match itself. As a result, there has been extensive media coverage of hooliganism in soccer. It has been argued that the sensationalisation, coupled with the predictive manner through which the media looks at the match even before it starts, has a role to play in motivating violence. In the United Kingdom at least, one academic school of thought considers media amplification as the key source of violence in football.

The British media has also been under criticism for its chauvinistic manner in which it approaches international games. This manner of approach was observed in the Euro 96 championships. This is the time when one of the matches, England vs. Germany, as recommencement of the world war II. Despite the fact that there are no such tabloids that go to the extreme in other parts of Europe, studies have revealed that the media has a role to play in the current violence in football. In all the other nations in Europe that have been identified with media violence, hooligans takes pleasure in the kind of publicity they receive and often long for it, with opposition groups competing for columns and being mentioned in important headlines. Films, like the ones mentioned in the introduction also contribute to fuelling the violence (Hill, para 2).  

It is argued that racism has a greater role to play in football hooliganism. This is no longer as common as it was 30 to 40 years ago. This is despite the fact that the extent of this factor in violence in football cannot be quantified. The speculation and arguments of racism having a role to play in violence in football has not been proven by experimental data. However, this is a major issue that has been blamed for outbreaks of violence mostly at international games (Collins and Vamplew, p 26). This is a controversial issue with some academicians arguing that the role of racism in the problem is minimal and others claiming that it is the major cause of football hooliganism especially at international matches. In Britain utterances on racism still takes place during matches that are likely to fuel violence. This problem took effect in the 1970s and 1980s and was so serious. During this time in Europe, the blacks were welcomed with obvious chants of racism. In the current period there is a decrease in most of Europe probably due to anti-racism campaigns. In some countries lime Germany and Australia, the issue is still apparent. In a study, it was discovered that 20 percent of supporters in Germany may be sympathetic to the neo-Nazi movement. Nevertheless, in some cases, Nazi symbols and catchphrases are used during matches just as a provocative factor, without any underlying political reasons (Mosely, p 21).    

In the current past, alcohol and substance abuse has contributed to violence in football than was the case in the 60s. However, this factor has not been a focus in a lot of research due to the fact that it is assumed to be a minor factor. Some studies have however claimed that alcohol and drugs can lead to violence in football (Collins and Vamplew, p 82).

It has been argued that violence in football is a reflection of the society. It is mirrors the violence and separations that are evident in the society. In nations where there are sectarian separations, this is usually the root cause of conflicts between supporters. In Italy this is contributed by regional divisions. In Spain, the reverberations of the civil war are the root causes of the rivalry between the Real Madrid and Athletico Bilbao (Mosely, p 28).    

Suggested solutions
It is important that violence in football is dealt with as it threatens the stability and development of the game. It threatens the comfort of the entire actors in football. Football without a live audience is a nightmare to the players. It is also a nightmare for football fans to be forced to watch their favourite teams playing, through the screen. It is important to note that this is the absolute solution to the problem if all the other measures fail to work (Mosely, p 38).      

Prohibiting selling alcohol in the stadium will go a long way to curbing violence in football. Violence has been fuelled by the influence of alcohol, and reducing its availability will help in ensuring that fewer people will attend a match while drunk. The move might be opposed from many quotas. Some people question the legality of selling alcohol in the stadium during a match (Collins and Vamplew, p 72). Owing to the fact that sellers do get a lot of money through selling alcohol in such functions, they are likely to strongly oppose the idea. The community has a responsibility as much as the government. There is the need therefore for the sellers to realise that it is for the good of all that the prohibition is effected. They should therefore embrace the move realising that in case of chaos, they are much at a loss as all the others, or even more in case their property is taken away. This is a measure that might not completely eliminate drinking as a cause because people can drink elsewhere and then come in drunk, but it will be beneficial in reducing the problem (BBC, para 2).

Increasing surveillance and use of sophisticated policing is another solution that has been considered in many countries where violence in soccer takes place. Separation of supporters is a measure that can be considered in preventing the problem. This is where the supporters of different teams are made to sit separately. This will help because the likelihood of irritating and provoking will be reduced. This will also be helped because police surveillance and monitoring will be made easier (Collins and Vamplew, p 56).

Establishment of supporter coaching schemes is also another measure that can be considered in decaling with the issue. This is where social workers are given a group of supporters to train them on how to support their teams responsibly. It is important for club officials to be in contact with their supporters. It is also important that once in a while supporters forums are held where honest conversations can be carried out between the officials and the supporters. This may not completely handle the problem but it will help great deal in reducing it (Loughran, para 7).

Conclusion
This paper investigates football hooliganism in Europe and seeks to find out how these can be reduced and how better to watch football without violence. This is a major issue that has affected the continent for a long time as far as football is concerned. It has a long history with its worse extent being reported in the 1980s. The deaths and injuries during that time from football hooliganism were overwhelming. They have been going down in the years up to date, but the problem is far from being resolved. There are various measures suggested in dealing with this issue and if the community and the government put their efforts to dealing with it, it will be reduced, if not completely eradicated. Football is a sport that is loved by all and it is a well established game that cannot be killed by hooliganism. The absolute solution to the problem is banning live spectatorship. In this case, the players are forced to play in a stadium without supporters or motivation.

Even as the issues of fitness and well-being are being probed under newer concepts and technologies, short-wave diathermy (SWD), the old hand in providing relief from pain, is drawing renewed interest of the healthcare practitioners in its new avatar. It is a form of radio-frequency radiation that operates at 27.12 MHz, and is used therapeutically by physiotherapists (Wang et al., 2007).

SWD is the clinical application of electromagnetic energy where it gets converted into thermal energy. The most common benefits derived from it include relief from pain, contracture management, and the effect of enhanced blood flow to the localized region. In other words, its deep tissue heating process increases blood flow, metabolic rate, oxygenation, and concentration of white blood cells and antibodies, while decreasing inflammation and edema. Alongside it provides relaxation and relief from muscle spasm, and increases pliability of collagenous tissues. Therefore it is useful in many painful conditions like arthritis, bursitis, tenosynovitis, fibrositis, myositis, sprains, strains, fractures, neuritis, peripheral vascular disease, pneumonia, bronchitis, otitis media, pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic wounds, lymphedema, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, postsurgical pain and edema (Bernal, 2009).

Background
In spite of its vast potential in providing relief from pain, SWD could not become popular in the 1990s mostly due to two reasons like safety and high cost. The early units were capacitance-electrode machines that caused burns in some cases. Apart from that, some researchers also reported the instances of negative interaction of SWD with the implanted device, which caused severe brain damage in the area where the lead electrodes were implanted (Siberstein, 2008).

Thus apprehension of negative side effects like above influenced the physiotherapists and athletic trainers to find an alternative arrangement through ultrasound therapy (Merrick, 2001). However, the improvised versions of SWD that contains improved shielding and space plates are found to be safer and capable of providing a number of other positive side effect, besides proving to be far more effective than ultrasound therapy.

Reason behind Resurgence of SWD
The resurgence of SWD has become possible mainly due to two factors like shortcomings of ultrasound therapy and the increased strength of SWD. A brief comparison would clear the issue.

Ultrasound can heat only a relatively small volume of tissue, which is approximately twice the area of the machines sound head. Consequently, it cannot increase tissue temperature beyond the depth at around 1-5 cm. In the process it heats a volume of tissue not more than the size of two rolls of 35-mm film. This happens to be just a frugal part of the total volume of the body part that requires treatment. This clearly shows the limitation of ultrasound therapy. On the other hand, SWD heats a volume of tissue similar to the volume of a full-sized bowl within the same amount of time (Merrick, 2001) and generating more relief.

Clinical Grounds
Researched evidences also corroborate the above fact. Previous clinical research on its impact on the cellular level showed that under specific conditions (pulsed at a mean power of 48 W for 10 minutes twice daily on days 2, 3 and 4) of SWD exposure, the proliferation rates of dermal fibroblasts and chondrocytes were increased significantly (Hill et al., 2002).

The new clinical research of Wang et al. (2007) investigated on the impact of SWD on chondrocytes. Chondrocytes are specialized cells, which produce and maintain the extracellular matrix of cartilage, a tissue that is resilient and pliant (Muir, 2005).

It has long been recognized by the researchers that mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathway is one of the most important area of study in pain management, since it gets deregulated in various diseases, ranging from cancer to immunological, inflammatory and degenerative syndromes and, therefore commands high-level protection. Several MAPK and receptor-tyrosine kinases have been characterized as participating in chondrocyte signaling pathways (Hoffman, Weston, and Underhill, 2003).  There are three major families of MAPK, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK) and p38 (Orton et al., 2005).

Accommodating the significance of MAPK in the proliferation of different cell types, Wang et al. (2007) explored the role of all the above three major types of MAPK. In the process they found the phosphorylated ERK (phospho-ERK 1 and ERK 2) level increased significantly within 5120 minutes, following consecutive exposure to SWD for 7 days. On the other hand, exposure to SWD failed to alter the intensity of phosphorylated JNK and p38 within 0240 minutes. Cells were exposed to short waves once for seven consecutive days in the presence of 0, 10 mmolL, 20 mmolL or 50 mmolL PD98059 (an ERK inhibitor), where PD98059 totally inhibited SWD-induced enhancement of proliferation without altering normal control viability. In the presence of SWD and PD98059, the cell viability was lower than the normal control.

Wang et al. (2007) eventually found that cells exposed to SWD once per day for seven consecutive days produced 42 percent increase in proliferation, which is significant by no means, and which led them to the conclusion that SWD could increase proliferation in human chondrocytes by activating the ERK pathway, which is also involved in maintaining normal cell proliferation under physiological conditions. Thus this investigation clinically explains the advantages of SWD exposure in inducing recuperation of cartilage.

Other Benefits
SWD also provides a number of positive side effects, such as inhibition of inflammation, stimulation of connective tissue and bony repair. It has also been reported that joints appear to increase both uptake and concentration of glycosaminoglycans, glucosamine, and galactosamine, the key structural elements of articular cartilage, when SWD applied to healing. Such developments, therefore, hold great promise for osteoarthritis patients (Merrick, 2001).

SWD can also be applied in the post-surgery conditions. Varying the amount of heat it can be used in special situations too, such as tissue warming, prevention of excessive bleeding, and sealing off traumatized tissues. Thus SWD can be an important tool in eye surgery and neurosurgery. It takes approximately 20 minutes for one application, though it may vary according to the gravity of the condition (Bernal, 2009).

Apart from providing a plethora of benefits, SWD is also easier to use in comparison with other heating modalities. It takes the application of basic heat (or thermography) therapy to a higher and more intense level, where the use of targeted short-wave electromagnetic pulses stimulates healing in deep tissue. On the other hand, standard heating modalities are less effective, as they do not penetrate the skin (Bernal, 2009).

Conclusion
The review above clearly shows that SWD stands to provide greater benefits than other heating modalities like ultrasound therapy, as it is capable of penetrating more to the troubled zones and providing relief in less time. Therefore, research findings on the efficacy of the new SWD machines justify its resurgence. However, a cogent and cohesive campaign is now needed to change the perceptions of the healthcare practitioners as well as the athletic trainers who still are apprehensive of negative side effects of SWD. Alongside, lowering the cost of SWD units could also contribute to its promotion.

UNITED STATES PROFESSIONAL TENNIS ASSOCIATION (USPTA)

History of USPTA
United States Professional Tennis Association (USPTA) is the essential linkage connecting the game- growing programs and the players, with its history being uniquely tide to dramatic changes in tennis and its professional players and coaches. USPTA is the worlds oldest and largest organization of tennis teachers. It has and always will determine the way for teaching how to play tennis around the world.

USPTA was founded in the year 1927. Tennis was only limited in country club set but some make a way to see potentials to please the audience and generate revenue. One of the four freethinkers has built the first professional tennis tour including the American and French tennis players and one of them is Benny Richard, who was one of the founding members of USPTA and winner of many major amateur competitions. The goal of USPTA is to bridge the space between the amateur ranks and the career as tennis professional. On September 23, 1927, a small group of people have met in New York and USPTA was born.

USPTA have conducted regular meetings and tournaments from 1927 to 1943. The members of the organization were some of the worlds greatest players including Bill Tilden, Don Budge, Jack Kramer, Tony Trabert, Ellsworth Vines, Pancho Segura, Bobby Riggs, Fred Perry and Welby Van Horn. Famous women players like Pauline Betz Addie, Alice Marble and Sarah Cooke joined USPTA in 1940s.

In 1968, the open era of tennis has donned. The professional players and teachers shred the benefits and USPTA experienced many far reaching changes. In 1969, the desire to create the industrys highest standards in teaching the games was realized by Jack Barnaby and he has created the first certification test. The membership of USPTA has reached 1,000.

The popularity of tennis has exploded after the historic match between Billie Jean King and Bobby Ridge. USPTA has benefited from engorge of the players, the membership have reached 3000 by 1981, and became 4000 in 1984. Until the 70s the organization dont have any official home or administrative department. Rey Bobbick became the first executive director in 1974 and he established its national office in Houston. After the death of Bobbick in 1975, Bill Tym became the executive director and moved the office in Tennessee. In 1980s, USPTA continued to expand its influence in tennis industry and its commitment to its members. The Japan Professional Tennis Association became the first international division of the organization.

USPTA has executed computerization and moved the headquarters in Saddle brook Resort in Wesley Chapel, Florida. The purchase of its own building gave the USPTA a world class structure. Even the boomed in tennis has end, USPTA continued to grow. The association added department for education, public relations, sport marketing, divisional administrative, membership, player development and multi media. George Beyshell created the mental of testing certification and continued to develop and improved the system until his death in 1998.  In 1990s the introduction to the original free grass roots lesson programs in tennis across America have been seen, and USPTA hailed its first hall of famer, Arthur Ashe in 1993.

In 1994, the membership have reached 10, 500 and USPTA was the first sports organization in tennis to have its own website which is USPTA.com, followed by Find-a-Pro, a service for employers and member debut in 1997. Today USPTA have numerous website that gave valuable resources for its members, the tennis industry, and the people who are interested in tennis. USPTA also provides security for its members and it promotes the profession to in every way including its own television show.

USPTA supported its partners on the projects and increasing tennis participation. From developing new members and improving the lesson experience the players received. USPTA is what it is now because of its members which reached 14, 500 in 2007 in more than 60 countries. If not for its members who had work very hard in delivering the best tennis lesson to a beginner, managing the best tennis facilities, teaching at the public park and coaching the future champions, USPTA would not thrived. Its history in tennis, the roles they have played in the past and the work they will take on tomorrow make USPTA and its member who they are.

Governance Structure, Organizational Structure  Staff
United States Professional Tennis Association is an organization that prohibited discriminations, which is supervise by its democratically members. It is divided into 17 U.S. divisions, which is consisting of 50 states, including the International Division, Southeast Asia Division, and the Japan Professional Tennis Association (Woods, 2006).

National Board of Directors consists of two elected officers from the 17 U.S. divisions, the three immediate past presidents, and the eight-member national Board of Directors. The Board of Directors is the one who handles the dealings of the association, which is held during the meetings of the Executive Committee. It consists of the national president, the first vice presidents, four vice presidents, the secretary-treasurer and the past president. The CEO and the general counsel are also included in the meeting.  The CEO is the one who administer the daily administration of USPTA from the World Headquarters. The general council is the one who gives advice to the board and Executive Committee about all of the legal issue in the association. The Committees are assigned at the national and divisional levels they are the one who create the policies and the directions for the activities of the association (Woods, 2006).

Today, the staff of USPTA are Rich Fanning as the Director of Operations, Marty Bostrom as the Executive Assistant to CEO and Email Administrator, Shawna Riley is the Director of Communications, Julie Myers is the Director of Creative Services, Kimberly Forrester is the Publication ManagerManaging Editor, Poornima Rimm is the Director of Public Relations, Jill Phipps is in-charge in the Communications, John Dettor is the Marketing Director, Rick Bostrom is the Sports Marketing Coordinator, Ramona Husaru is the Digital Asset Coordinator Tennis Multimedia Management, Joe Birkmire is the Video Production Director, Aisha Nelson is the Video Editor, Nick Warwick is the Graphic DesignerVideo Editor, Fred Viancos is the Director of Professional Development, Janice Stollenwerck is the Corporate Services Administrator, Erin Ortbal is the Receptionist, Dan Wilson is the Director of Information Technology, Scott Bucic is the Information TechnologyMultimedia, Kathy Buchanan is the Director of Computer Services, Kalin Cogar is the Divisional Executive Administrator, Vicky Tristan is the Membership and Certification ManagerCertification administration.

Mission Values, Goals of the Organization
The mission of USPTA is to elevate the standards of tennis- teaching professionals and coaches. Its vision is that the USPTA will be the worlds leading trade association of certified tennis teaching professionals and coaches, viewed and highly respected as an organization of knowledgeable experts and specialists, industry innovators, and as an indispensable business partner. The USPTA will deliver the highest level of educational tools and programs for its membership that enhance the livelihoods of its members, create career opportunities within the tennis industry and promote the sport of tennis (Phipps, 2010).

Financial Information
USPTA get their income through the membership or register fee to avail an exam and through the people who want to be members in the association but pay both the application fee and the prorated dues amounted.

The prorated amount for applying for membership is different in every month of the year. For January 2010, the membership fee is 218.17 (U.S. and in Canada), 204.42(International). For February 2010, the fee is 198.34(U.S and in Canada), 185.84 (International). For March 2010, the fee is 178.51 (U.S. and in Canada), 167.26 (International). For April 2010, the fee is 158.68 (U.S. and in Canada), 148.68 (International). For May 2010, the fee is 138.85 (U.S. and in Canada), 130.10 (International). For June 2010, the fee is 119.02 (U.S. and in Canada),  111.52 (International). For July 2010, the fee is  99.19 (U.S. and in Canada),  92.94 (International). For August 2010, the fee is  79.36 (U.S. and in Canada),  74.36 (International). For the month of September 2010, the fee is  59.53 (U.S. and in Canada)  55.78 (International). For the month of October 2010, the fee is 277.70 (U.S. and in Canada), 260.20 (International). For the month of November 2010, the fee is 257.87 (U.S and in Canada), 241.62 (International), and the fee for the month of December, 2010 is 238.00 (U.S. and in Canada), 223.00 (International) (Buchanan, 2009).

USPTA spends their funds that came from the registration and exam fee in the programs that they developed. The programs aim to meet the needs of the tennis-playing community, from children up to the adult league players and everyone in between. USPTA Little Tennis, USPTA Junior Circuit, USPTA Adult Tennis League, USPTAs Lessons For Life, USPTAs Tennis Across America, and the USPTA Member-Beginner Guest are the programs that USPTA are doing (Butler, 2002).

The other programs that they are doing are the USPTA Player Development Program which is designed to serve as an educational resources center for the modern games and this also help the tennis teachers to be introduced in the modern teaching techniques to their players. The USPTA Specialist Program provides education and certification opportunities for those who want to specialize in a certain areas of tennis- teaching profession. The USPTA Distance Learning Center proffers an easy-to-use source for tennis professionals and the players that are seeking information about the components of the game. These also include one-hour audio taped presentations from the Annual USPTA World Conference on Tennis and the stroke technique tips in video clips. The Professional Tennis Management provides opportunities to the students to acquire a college business degree with specialty in tennis management. This is designed to attract and educate men and women and prepare them for the careers in the industry of tennis (Kagan, 1998).

MembershipStakeholders
To avail a membership at USPTA, an individual must first pay the examination fee and then take the membership exam. The membership at USPTA is divided into six categories Applicant, he or she will receive e-mail, benefits, including on-court liability insurance and subscriptions of magazine that came from USPTA World Headquarters, while he or she is studying for the exam for certified membership. Certified Membership, to avail this category he or she must meet all application, pass the exam and experience requirements and he or she must follow the USPTA Code of Ethics. Recreational Coach category is created for people who are already teaching tennis. To be a recreational coach, the applicant must find out the basic standards in teaching tennis during the workshop led by USTA. Corporate Membership is entitled to the privileges and is subject to obligation of active membership, but the member cannot vote, hold an office and join in USPTA tournaments. The corporate member must be planned in the name of the company. The company should not use the USPTA logo or product for endorsement. The member must assure USPTA that the admission of the membership is open to all regardless the race, color, age, creed, gender, national origin, religion of physical handicap.  Honorary Membership is the category that honors the people who have made an outstanding contribution to tennis or USPTA. it is voted by the USPTA Executive Committee. Retired Membership, the member must be 65 or older and no longer teaching on a full-time or part-time basis. The members must present a statement that they are no longer teach on a full- or part-time basis and a copy of the official document presenting that they have receive the retirement benefits (Tristan, 2010).

The present president of USPTA is Tom Daglis, the first vice president is Randy Mattingley, and the five vice presidents are Bunny Brining, Mark Fairchilds, Chuck Gill, Jim Loehr, and Dr. Jack Groppel. The Immediate Past President is Harry Gilbert, the CEO is Tim Heckler, and the general counsel is Paul Waldman. The three past presidents are Ron Woods (2005-2007), David T. Porter,Ed.D.(2003-2005) Joseph Thompson (1999-2003) (Woods, 2006).

Policy Issues of the Organization
The issues about the organization happened when Jack Groppel was appointed to the post interviewed for by Chuck Gills nominating committee in Las Vegas in 2006. Jack Groppel is appointed both in USPTA and USTA. Officers and Board Members should not have policy making appointments in both of the said associations. The issues where the positions may differ in conflict of interest. An individual who has an appointment or position in USTA should be excluded in handling a position in USPTA. The appointment is another event in a series of troubling USPTA developments, the appointment that happened does not serve the rank and file members (Bailin, 2007).

The first step of USPTA to solve this issue is that they have centralizing a forumsectionblogdiscussion board within their website. This will able the members to exchange ideas, drills, and opinions freely.  The result is that, Jack Groppel chose to stay in USPTA and he excluded his position in USTA (Bailin, 2007).

Other Information About The Organization
USPTA will be awarding some of their members that will happen during their World Conference in September 27 to October 2 in La Quinta, Calif. USPTA is now accepting nomination for its 2010 National Awards Program until June 2. The awards that will be presented are in every facets of the tennis business which the members of USPTA work. The awards categories are USPTA Stars, The USPTA Industry Excellence Award, and The Alex Gordon Award for Professional of the Year, The Facility Manager of the Year Award, College Coach of the Year and High School Coach of the Year, The George Bacso Tester of the Year, The USPTA Lessons for Life Award, and The USPTA Tennis Across America Award (Anonymous, 2010).

My Ideal RoleJob Position 10 years from now
Ten years from now, I want to be a Tennis Instructor at USPTA.  According to my Dad, who has an experience in playing tennis and who is a tennis instructor as well, he is encouraging me to teach tennis to the people who are having interest in tennis. According to my friend who is a tennis instructor as well, I need first to have a plan on what I want to achieve and my goals must match on my value system. Second, I need to develop a positive attitude. I must always think positive so that it is easy for me to achieve my goals. Third, I should not give up. Like in playing tennis, I need to stay in focused and motivate myself, and I also need to have lots of practice to enhance my skills. And last, I need to take small steps I must successfully initiate myself and complete small steps. Starting out small will allow me to experience a win on each rung of the ladder.

National Collegiate Athletics Association

Directions See the NCAA website httpwww.ncaa.orgwpsportal for general information.
History Why was the NCAA originally created What year did it begin forming
The NCAA was created as a response to the call for reforms in football that would create formal rules in order to reduce the injuries and deaths encountered during the game (The National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA, 2010). The NCAA originally bore the name Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) when it was first founded in December 28, 1905 by 62 members (NCAA, 2010).

What is the dollar amount of the NCAA operating budget
The total dollar amount of the NCAA Operating Budget is 710,000,000 (NCAA, 2010).

How many colleges are currently in the NCAA overall          In each division
Division 1 347 members
Division 2 295 members
Division 3 377 members
All Active Members 1075 members

Describe the governance structure of the NCAA.
The governance structure of the NCAA includes three separate divisions that serve as the legislative arm of the organization (NCAA, 2010). Likewise, an Executive Committee, the highest body in the NCAA, is present to oversee the operations of the entire organization (NCAA, 2010). Lastly, Committees are also present to deal with sports rules and manage the championships (NCAA, 2010).

Review the subsections on the Website About the NCAA. Share three interesting things that you learned.
 The members serve as the primary source of rule for the organization, which means that it is a democratic bottom-up organization.

The organization does not only deal with regulating the rules and games of football but also includes services related to student welfare and education.

The organization takes diversity and corporate alliance in consideration when it comes to operations.

Services Provided The NCAA serves as a governance and administrative structure through which its member institutions do which of the following
Enacts legislation to deal with athletics problems
Promotes championship events
Compiles and distributes sport statistics
Administers marketing, licensing programs to enhance intercollegiate athletics.
All of the above

Who was Myles Brand____________________
Myles Brand, according to the NCAA (2010) website is the President of NCAA.

What is the NCAA Eligibility Center
The NCAA eligibility Center processes the registration of all high school student-athletes who desire to compete within the college level. Likewise, the Center is also responsible for maintaining and processing all the certifications for initial eligibility.

NCAA Initial-Eligibility Rules. If you enroll in a Division I college during the  2009-10 academic year and want to participate in athletics or receive an athletics scholarship during your first year, what is required in order to be eligible

The following are required by the NCAA (2010) for participation or receipt of athletics scholarship
Complete high school education

Complete a minimum of 16 core courses
Pass the GPA and ACT or SAT requirements, according to the sliding scale required for Division 1 and
Fill out the amateurism questionnaire and obtain the final amateurism certification.

Financial Aid. True or False A college may offer a four-year athletics scholarship to a student.
Initial 1 Year
Renewal Maximum of 5 to 6 years

Recruiting.
What is a prospective student athlete (a prospect)
A student becomes a prospect when heshe is able to complete the following requirements
Starts ninth-grade classes
College provides financial aid or other benefits to the student, relatives, or friends that are not usually given to students.

What is a contact
A contact occurs when a coach interacts with the student or the parents outside the college premises and speaks more than a hello. Likewise, contact also occurs when the parents and students interact with the coach at the high school or place of competition or practice (NCAA, 2010).

What is an evaluation
Evaluation includes assessments made by the coach regarding the students academic or athletic ability, which may be in the form of visiting the school or watching practice sessions or competitions (NCAA, 2010).
What is an official visit How many official paid visits may be taken by a high school student to Division I colleges

A visit made by the students and their parents to colleges, which is made at the expense of the college (NCAA, 2010). The students and their parents are limited to only one paid official visit (NCAA, 2010).

What is the National Letter of Intent
The National Letter of Intent is a document signed by the prospective student-athlete that states hisher affiliation with a particular college and also lists the benefits derived from hisher participation (NCAA, 2010).

What is your favorite NCAA championship sport What is the date and location for the finals
My favorite NCAA championship sport is baseball. For Division I, the Mens College World Series is on June 19-2930, 2010 at the Omahas Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium in Omaha, NE.

For Division II, the Finals is on May 22-29, 2010 at the USA Baseball National Training Complex at Cary, North Carolina.

For Division III, the Finals is on May 28-June 1, 2010 at the Fox Cities Stadium at Appleton, Wisconsin.

Epidemiology is the study of distribution and determinants of the states of health in population. The study of the impact of social interactions that is, social norms, laws organizations, conventions, social conditions and way of conduct on the health of populations is referred to as social epidemiology. Social epidemiology have for long been an issue of importance for public health in general. Social epidemiology is a relatively novel area of inquiry that aims at describing and clarifying the social as well as geographic distribution and determinants of the states of health in population.  This paper will look at the critical social purpose fulfilled by the science of Social epidemiology.

Introduction
Social epidemiology is a word that finds its derivation from the aspects as well as methods of classic epidemiology (Berkman and Kawachi, 2000). Epidemiology, according to Rothman, Greenland, and Lash (2008), has its roots from a combination of three words epi meaning among, demos meaning the people, and logos referred to as the science of study. The definition of the term epidemiology is a literal translation from Greek meaning the study of what affects people in large numbers. Researches concerning various social conditions and the way they influence as well as determine the health conditions of populations have for long been a matter of great importance and interest for public health in general. In the past few decades the relationship between social sciences and epidemiology was forged.  This relationship was promoted through the desire to distinguish and document the extensive spectrum of determinants of health, from a miniature level where specific biological aspects operate, to a bigger level where social conditions in which populations live are expressed (Rothman, Greenland, and Lash, 2008). This effort has led to the emergence of social epidemiology. Social epidemiology is a result of the combination of the social as well as behavioral sciences with the study of the distribution and determinants of illnesses and injury in the human population.

Social epidemiology is not a completely novel discipline. The father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, made his first observation and recording of the way climate, living conditions, in addition to peoples professions had an impact on the various types of diseases that were affecting them. Hippocrates recommended that before physicians made any diagnosis it was important that they observe various outward behaviors of a patient (Berkman and Kawachi, 2000).

Social epidemiology, as illustrated by Berkman and Kawachi, (2000), mainly deals with the study of how society in conjunction with different forms of social groups impact on the health and the well being of people and populations. It exploits the epidemiologic scope of host, agent, and environmental factors to focus clearly on the social determinants in infectious illnesses progression and transmission.  Social epidemiology particularly deals with the studies of the frequency, distribution, as well as social determinants of the states of health in society. Social epidemiology therefore, goes further than the analysis of specific risk factors to comprise the study of social aspects wherein the health-illness phenomenon comes about (Berkman and Kawachi, 2000). Social epidemiology augments the traditional epidemiological approach with features and methods from other disciplines for example economics, demography, economics in addition to biology so as to make clear the path between exposure to social aspects of the environment and its impacts on the health of the population. However, this fusion of techniques develops a procedural challenge (Oakes and Kaufman, 2006). Social epidemiology, as asserted by Cwikel (2006), makes it easy to integrate the social role of populations in the customary etiological approach to the health of populations and as an outcome allows a better comprehension of the way, where and why inequalities have an effect on health. Social epidemiology, in this regard, can greatly contribute to the development of health management as well as the elimination of inequalities in health.

The critical social purpose fulfilled by the science of Social epidemiology
The primary aim of public health professional is the improvement of physical environment including housing, sanitation, nutrition and water supply among others. Improvement of physical environments in the United States has resulted in a drastic increase in life expectancy. This improvement as scientists forecast will lead to reduction in social inequalities in health.  However, the continued growth as well as maintenance of social disparities in many countries, as indicated by Kaufman and Cooper (1999), has augured for the need for the outlook of social epidemiology. Therefore, even as diseases have come and gone with some being completely eradicated, others have emerged and numerous noninfectious diseases have been a major cause of death and disability, social disparities in health remain. These disparities require an epidemiologic approach to understanding causes of illness that utilize social experience as more direct etiologic factor of illness and disability than is the case with the traditional view  (Berkman and Kawachi, 2000). Social epidemiology comes in hardy and provides an evidence-based technique for public health activities. It assumes that the distribution of ups and downs in a particular community corresponds to the distribution of health as well as diseases. The purpose of social epidemiology is to categorize social features affecting the pattern of illness and wellbeing in a society and to comprehend its mechanisms (Oakes and Kaufman, 2006). Social epidemiology therefore seeks to identify the impacts of social variables on the populations.

Social difficulties are distinctively included in social epidemiology due to the fact that many of the modern world challenges in public health for example obesity, violence, child abuse, drug abuse, and infectious diseases are related to both individual habits and general trends in the social structure such as distribution of social resources, wealth, media influence and market forces (Kaufman and Cooper, 1999). Researchers of social problems can enhance their practice and research by using the techniques of social epidemiology. These techniques clearly reveal the way social problems are fundamentally associated with the health status of the population.

Establishing the distribution of illness in addition to social problems and comprehending the significant risk factors and the relationship with each other are a major part of the social epidemiology. Factors that aggravate the outcome of specific health or social conditions such as behaviors, attributes, exposures and genetic characteristics are referred to as risk factors. Cwikel (2006), states that social epidemiology deals with the identification as well as determination of the distribution of risk factors. Social epidemiology, as noted by Kaufman and Cooper (1999), also puts into practice what is known regarding a particular medical condition with an aim of maintaining and improving health and well being of the population. Social epidemiology gives a lot of emphasis to the biological and psychosocial determinants of illness and health. It emphasizes on the utilization of multidisciplinary strategies to analyze difficult social challenges.

The approach of social epidemiology brings to light the understanding that social aspects can be on either side of the equation of determining the factors that affect health and disease. These factors can either be independent variables or dependent variables. Independent variables are aspects theorized to put across the phenomena of health and illness. Dependent variables are the social outcomes that social epidemiology tries to understand.  Social epidemiology puts more emphasis on the promotion of health and eradication of diseases (Rothman, Greenland, and Lash, 2008). One principle aim of social epidemiology is to emphasize on the need to establish public health leadership for minority groups, to direct efforts on illnesses as well as conditions that greatly affect minority communities, for example intentional injuries, infant mortality and HIV. Health promotion comprise the establishment of suitable as well as helpful health care delivery organizations, health policy in addition to human environments by way of combining health advocacy and education. Various methods of health promotion include epidemiological, social, educational in addition to behavioral features of establishing interventions in health education (Berkman and Kawachi, 2000).    

There are various disciplines associated with social epidemiology. Some of these disciplines include public health social work also referred to as medical social work, medical sociology, health education, demography in addition to health psychology. Public health is one of the oldest professions associated with social epidemiology. Public health comprises of empirical as well as experiential features and methods of health education, community and social development. Sociology on the other hand is the study of social processes and peoples behaviors in society (Kendall, 2008). Medical sociology deals with social effects of health and diseases, and the interrelation between various social organizations and the health care delivery systems. Medical sociology also deals with the way of conduct of healthcare professionals in addition to that of the general population. Health psychology, according to Oakes and Kaufman (2006), utilizes the scientific know-how obtained from the field of psychology to enhance as well as preserve health and to manage diseases mainly on personal level. Health psychology aims at establishing the causes and discriminating association of health, diseases, and loss of function. It mainly deals with treatment of people and their habits.

Social epidemiology, according to Cwikel (2006), concentrates more on the social aspect of life as compared to other forms of epidemiology. Contrary to others, it does not dwell much on the biological factors on the prevalence and incidence of diseases. As a subdiscipline of epidemiology, social epidemiology describes the causes of a disease, risk factors and the populations that are highly exposed to those risk factors. It also describes the factors that aggravate various effects of a certain health condition as well as influence the outcome of certain health programs. Social epidemiology concentrates on the role of social, behavioral in addition to psychological factors in giving an explanation to the distribution of diseases. Kendall (2008), states that the extent to which human beings are interrelated as well as embedded in a particular community is vital to a persons health and well being. This relationship is also vital to the health as well as vitality of the whole population.  Social epidemiology therefore aims at explaining the association between social problems and various health issues. It utilizes specific procedures to come up with public health interventions with a sole purpose of promoting health. Social epidemiology has time and again utilized traditional techniques of observation and description to come up with consistent correlation between social aspects and health issues (Oakes and Kaufman, 2006).

Conclusion
Social epidemiology is the study of the impact of social interactions that is social norms, laws organizations, conventions, social conditions and way of conduct on the health of populations. Social epidemiology is a result of the combination of the social as well as behavioral sciences with the study of the distribution and determinants of illnesses and injury in the human population. One purpose of social epidemiology is to categorize social features affecting the pattern of illness and wellbeing in a society and to comprehend its mechanisms. Social epidemiology concentrates more on the social aspect of life as compared to other forms of epidemiology. Social epidemiology describes the causes of a disease, risk factors and the populations that are highly exposed to those risk factors. Social epidemiology concentrates on the role of social, behavioral in addition to psychological factors in giving an explanation to the distribution of diseases. Social epidemiology utilizes traditional techniques of observation and description to come up with consistent correlation between social aspects and health issues.

Analysis and brief Discussion of My Fitness Assessment Results
The fitness assessment results have brought forth quite a few important facts about my current fitness level, such as my overall fitness level as well as the parts of my body need immediate attention.

Firstly, the assessment shows my overall fitness is somewhat close to very ordinary level, which indicates that I am not equipped to manage any stressful physical work for long time. This finding clearly suggests me to develop my level of fitness through systematic and regular training. Secondly, the assessment shows that I need to improve the following areas of my body
1. Upper region Chest, Back, Shoulders, Biceps, Triceps, Forearms, Lattices, and Abdomen.
2. Lower region Quadriceps, Hamstrings, and Calves.
3. Cardio-vascular ability.

Proposed Fitness Plan for Short as well as Long-term Benefits
To cover the deficiencies as mentioned above, I propose a fitness plan for myself, comprising of the activities and exercises that I like to do, where my aim would be to meet immediate physical developmental needs and then to adopt an incremental approach in developing and sustaining strength, stamina and the shape of my body all throughout my life.

Accordingly, my short-term goal will be to improve my cardio-vascular ability, general fitness and strength of my body, and therefore I select some freehand exercises and some lightweight training with barbells and dumbbells, besides making schedules for yoga, aerobic dance and medium-paced walking. Altogether the short-term fitness plan looks like below

Short-term Workout Plan (Six months)
Warm-up and flexibility exercises (Appendix-1) Indoor, 20-30 minutes, five days a week.
Neck stretches Lateral neck flexion, forward neck flexion, neck rotation, and sternocleidomastoid stretch.
Chest and shoulder stretches Anterior shoulder stretch, anterior shoulder stretch 2, posterior shoulder stretch, and posterior shoulder stretch. 2, supraspinatus stretch, Internal rotation stretch, external rotation stretch, chest stretch, and partnered stretch.

Arm stretches Wrist flexor stretch, triceps stretch, wrist extensor stretch, and tennis elbow stretch.
Back and abdominal stretches Back stretch, lat dorsi stretch, lat dorsi stretch 2, back arch stretch, back slump stretch, rotation stretch, abdominal stretch, abdominal stretch 2, and slide stretch.

Hip and Groin Stretches Gluteus maximus stretch, outer hip stretch, standing outer hip stretch, piriformis stretch, gluteral stretch, short adductor stretch, long adductor stretch, and standing groin stretch.

Thigh Stretches Quadriceps stretch, laying quad stretch, hip flexor stretch, sitting hamstrings stretch, standing hamstring stretch, partnered hamstring stretch, and kneeling quad stretch.

Lower leg stretches Shin stretch, standing shin stretch, advanced shin stretch, gastrocnemius stretch, advanced gastrocnemius stretch, soleus stretch, soleus stretch 2, and advanced soleus stretch.
Foot and ankle stretching Planter fascia stretch and peroneal stretch.
Cardiovascular (aerobic) exercises 30-60 minute sessions, four days a week.
Walking Two days a week (outdoor, 30-40 minutes)
Aerobic Dance Once in a week (indoor, 30 minutes)
Yoga (Standard Asanas) Once in a week (Indoor, 60 minutes).
Muscular StrengthEndurance Training (Appendix - 2)
With and without barbells and dumbbells, 50-90 minute sessions, five days a week
Arms (Three days)
Biceps Curling and reverse curling (Barbells 10 Kg, 1 set, 10 repetitions)
Triceps Back curling (Barbells, 10 Kg, 2 sets, 10 repetitions)
Forearms Dumbbells (5 kg), curling (Three days, 1 set each arm, 10 repetitions)
Chest, Shoulders, and Back (Three days)
Push-ups (1 set, 10 repetitions)
Forward and back lifting (Barbells, 10 Kg, 1 set each, 10 repetitions)
Bench-press (Barbells, 15 Kg, 2 sets, 10 repetitions)
Legs  Abdomen (Two days)
Quadriceps Squats (Barbells, 15 Kg, 2 sets, 10 repetitions)
Hamstrings Folding movements (Dumbbells 55 Kg, 1 set each leg, 10 repetitions)
Calves Heals-lifting (1 set, 15-20 repetitions)
Abdomen Sit-ups (2 sets 15 repetitions)

According to the above plan there will be five days for general flexibility exercises, four days for cardio-respiratory fitness, and Five days for muscular strength training. Accordingly, there will be a combination of activities like below
Day 1 A  Walking  Arms  Chest, Shoulders, and Back (30 40101090 minutes)
Day 2 A  Dance  Legs  Chest, Shoulders, and Back (3030101080 minutes)
Day 3 A  Yoga (30 6090 minutes)
Day 4 A  Arms  Legs (30 101050 minutes)
Day 5 A  Walking  Arms  Chest, Shoulders, and Back (30 40101090 minutes)

Total Close to seven hours a week.

Long-term Workout Plan (Post-six months)
The long-term workout plan will follow the same pattern, however, the weights, sets and repetitions of strength training will be increased incrementally. Some variations will be adopted by adding one more day to the curriculum.

Summary
The above plan has been made according to my own choice of exercises and convenience, and therefore I feel confident to carry out the above plan successfully and achieve my aim of developing and sustaining a health, strong, and well-shaped body.

Sports basically highlight the skills and talents of an athlete. Spectators generally watch games as a venue for competition wherein the athletes act as skilled players who execute the mechanics of a particular game in a well-organized manner. Athletes may be viewed here as mere players following the rules being dictated by a particular sport. Although that may sound inappropriate, it should not be offensive to athletes because they are really players who showcase exemplary talents in their fields.

However, the bigger issue in sports is the sexuality and sexualization of the athletes (Davis 57). Sexuality may pose problems at times especially when people try to generalize a particular sport as either masculine or feminine. For example, boxing is commonly known as a masculine sport wherein most of the boxers are males who can withstand the ruggedness of the game, while cheerleading may be associated as a feminine one because of the stereotype that most cheerleaders are females. Although a sport being regarded as masculine or feminine is not too much of an issue here, there is still a clear distinction as to who can participate in a given game or tournament. For example, male and female basketball players are separated in the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the Womens National Basketball Association (WNBA). In cases where male and female athletes can play and compete side by side, a special category is made up, as in the case of the mixed doubles event in a tennis tournament.

Now, the sexualization of athletes is another issue that needs to be given emphasis. Sexualization of an athlete may be defined as making an athlete a sexual object or attributing his or her movements, uniform or body (whether a part or the whole) as something sexual to titillate the viewer (Davis 57). Both male and female athletes are subject to this kind of objectification. They are being reduced to mere sexual objects that no longer embody their beings as athletes (Davis 58). In this case, their skills and talents are being overlooked.

Female athletes are the usual victims of this practice. When the spectators focus shifts from the main context of the sport to the athletes body as something that is titillating, the athlete is reduced to a mere sexual object. This could occur on the venue of the game, through a television broadcast, or even in photographs (Davis 57). Athletes then suffer the consequences of being ridiculed by people and losing their respect (McLeod 65).

In the case of Canadian skier Emily Brydons image in a photograph while celebrating a world cup victory, she definitely counts as an athlete being sexualized. At first glance, the photograph may appear ordinary as it shows an athlete celebrating a victory by popping a bottle of champagne. However, a closer look at the image could titillate a spectator as the photograph displays a female depicting something sexual. The effect of the champagne spilling around Brydons mouth has the appearance of a male orgasm being enjoyed by a female. The image diverts the spectators attention from the victory celebration of Brydon to a sexual titillation as suggested by the portrayal of male orgasm being depicted by the champagne and the athlete. Although it may not be intentional, the portrayal of something sexual is given more emphasis in the said photograph (McLeod 65).

Emily Brydon may now suffer the consequences of being the subject of ridicule and losing respect from others by way of sexualizing the image (McLeod 65, 79). Suddenly, there is a shift of perception of Brydon from being an athlete to being a sexual object. She should be considered as a competent athlete because of her achievement in her sport however, the common notion of transforming females into sex objects resurfaces. Again, although maybe not intentional on the part of the photographer to capture the said image as something sexual, it is still the objectification of female athletes by spectators that reduces her to a sexual object. The issues on both sexuality and sexualization of athletes, specifically the female athletes, pose problems to Emily Brydon. It was not her choice, nor was it a deliberate act, to be reduced to a mere sexual object. It is the societys behavior that generated it.

Over two and a half centuries after the Declaration of Independence which saw the birth of what is the current United States of America Native Americans are still marginalized when it comes to education and employment. Formal Education for Indians goes a long way back in the 1800s when Native American children were forced into the education system and integrated into the mainstream modern American way of life. The funding of education for Indian schools by the Federal government in many states has been very inconsistent, owing to the relations between the federal government and the Native American ethnic governments. According to the National Advisory Council on Indian Education annual report 2005-2006, Native American children perform weakly in arithmetic and reading subjects.

Among the key reasons to improve Native American education is to push for an increase in funding for institutions providing for Indian natives needs. According to Indian Country Today, HYPERLINK httpindian.senate.gov t _blankSenate Committee on Indian Affairs Chairman Byron Dorgan supports the idea of a stand-alone Indian education bill, and so do many tribal leaders. On January 20, Rep. Betty McCollum introduced bipartisan legislation to address the lack of stimulus funding reaching Bureau of Indian Education schools in her state and across the country (Capriccioso, 2010).The Child Left behind Act of 2001 requires states to develop assessments in basic skills to be given to all students in certain grades, if those states are to receive federal funding for schools. . This act directly associates high level of education standards with federal funding.

Female dopers, according to Lock, portray a great risk to the prevailing social order as compared to men (p, 112). Even though females may use drugs they may fail to show masculinity as men would. However, as Lock states these drugs have adverse effects on conventional femininity (p, 112). People usually hate women dopers as this practice is associated with the impacts of becoming masculine. The media treats masculine female dopers more harshly as compared to male dopers and some female dopers who are not masculine (Lock p, 112). Females who do not conform to the rules of femininity are criticized in a similar manner to those disgraced as lesbians. However, as Lock argues, these insults contradict themselves when it comes to considering those women who even after doping maintain conventional femininity as stated by (p, 113). By considering sexuality, a more complex comprehension of the social order that filters through sports can be developed. It can therefore be decided that, Doping ban in elite sport legitimates heterosexuality and demonizes lesbianism.

Doping in sports
Anti-dopers who mainly promote aesthetic values are also anti-lesbianism in nature. They advocate for aesthetic performances of obligatory heterosexuality. The way masculine females who do not cheat are treated is the way female dopers are treated. Lesbians and female dopers are treated in an almost similar manner.  Sexuality is interpreted in terms of appearance (Lock p, 114). Women who do not portray feminine figures are insulted and despised. All insults are directed to women who do not have an appropriate gender appearance. They are treated as lesbians simply due to lack of femininity. Masculine men and feminine females are taken to be desirable. People, who are masculine yet biologically female, as stated by Lock, are taken to be undesirable (p, 115). Gender is however a social construction related to ones sex, but not caused by it in any way. Sexuality is without doubt involved in the development as well as maintenance of gender. Women who portray conventional femininity are not taken as lesbians, but as heterosexuals. People only wonder whether a woman is lesbian when she fails to display feminine features (Lock p, 115).

Concerning doping and sports women are portrayed as restrained in to conventional femininity by the need to be heterosexually desirable so as to be equal competitors. The term lesbian finds its use while describing sportswomen who are masculine. Lock argues that women who do not meet the requirements of conventional femininity are given all sorts of disgusting names (p, 116). Many people hate doping because it leads to development of non-heterosexually feminine females. Anti-doping campaigns spread the message that dopers will end up having bodies of the opposite sex (Lock p, 117). Doping, according to anti-doping campaigners, disrupts the body in terms of roles and appearance. According to Lock, they state that if a person wants a healthy sex life, which is specifically described in heterosexual terms, heshe should do away with doping (p, 119). Protection of ones gender from the impact of drugs is considered to safeguard the logical association between the bodys anatomy and heterosexuality. Doping ban therefore play a major role of preventing transgression of socially developed gender boundaries. Part of social context through which male and female with sport like bodies are judged is characterized by heterosexuality as a persons genders expression. Lock states that women who are masculine, yet do not dope, are considered to have transgressed the boundaries of a real feminine performance (p, 119). Transgressing the norms of social femininity leads to social rejection. Women dopers are regarded as a threat to male superiority. They are insulted and regarded as being ugly or more man like. They are defined as lesbians, a term that questions the authenticity of a woman. Lesbians are highly disliked in sports. The significant crime, as stated by Lock, that female dopers perform is not doping, but failing to display heterosexual femininity (p, 123). In line with this, women who are not dopers, but display masculine features are insulted the same way female dopers who become masculine are.

Conclusion
Doping bans without doubt legitimates heterosexuality while demonizing lesbianism. Women who do not portray feminine figures are insulted, despised and taken to be lesbians. They are taken to be more man like and ugly. On the other hand, women who portray conventional femininity, and yet dope, are not taken as lesbians. However, women who are not dopers, but display masculine features are insulted the same way female dopers who become masculine and lesbians are. Doping ban play a major role of preventing transgression of socially developed gender boundaries. Transgressing heterosexual norms leads to social rejection. Protection of ones gender from the impact of drugs is considered to safeguard the logical association between the bodys anatomy and heterosexuality.