Sport

The salaries given to American athletes and other sports personalities have always attracted a lot of heated debates among the Americans. Americans of all walks of life always talk about the big salaries paid to sports personalities. Some people have complained that the sporting personalities are paid large sums of money which according to them is not justified. However, the big question has always been whether these arguments are valid. Moreover, if the arguments are not valid and the sportsmen are justified to receive these high salaries, where does the money come from For example, a sportsman such as Alex Rodriguez, a baseman with the New York Yankee received about twenty five million dollars per season while Michael Jordan receives much more. Some of the arguments against these high salaries for sportsmen have been the contrast that other individuals such as teachers who have contributed more to the society are not paid as well. However, those who support the high salaries for the sportsmen have argued that the sportsmen are offered those attractive salaries and cannot turn them down. Moreover, if the owners of these sportsmen are wiling to pay them these huge sums of money, it means they are earning even more (Anderson, pp 8).

Athletes High Salaries
Almost all the people in the United States have some interest in sports. Sporting activities such as athletics, basketball, American football and soccer have evolved into a major source of entertainment in America and other parts of the world. People around the world are wiling to pay large sums of money to watch sporting activities either live or on the television. Moreover, sporting personalities have attracted a lot of admiration from people all over the world. But the big question has always been who is responsible for the big salaries that these personalities receive at the end of the season The correct answer to this question is the fans. Anybody interested in what an athlete earns has some interest on the game and spends some money to watch the sport which contributes to the huge salaries the sportsman is earning. If the public is obsessed by a sporting personality, more revenue is collected which translates into higher wages for the sportsman. In other words, the sport fans are responsible for the huge salaries received by the athletes and other sportsmen in the world.

The same fans who are disturbed by the huge salaries outstanding athlete receive and always grumble about them are the ones who set these salaries. This is because like any other economy, the price assigned for each factor of production is determined by the market. The choices of the customer on what they are willing and able to buy are one of the main determinants of the price of the product. The producers on the other hand meet the cost of production which is included in the product prices. If the producer has to make any profit and stay in business, the customer must be willing and able to buy the product at a price that covers the production cost and leave the producer with some profit. Otherwise the producer will not be willing to produce the product if the consumer cannot pay for them. The ability of the producer to accurately forecast the expected gains in the long run is more likely to stay in business longer (Anderson, pp 8).

The case is not in any way different in the sporting economy. The large salaries paid to athletes today are partly as a result of the voluntary choices the fans are willing to pay for. The large salaries is chiefly because of the large number of fans who are willing to pay to watch these sportsmen play. Therefore, if the general public is disturbed that the sportsmen are earning much more than anybody else in the world, then they have themselves to blame. The public have the powers to determine what the athletes earn. If the public stop paying so much to watch the games live or on television or buying expensive tickets and redirect the funds somewhere else, the athletes will earn much less than they earn today. However, it is in doubt whether this change in priority is possible if the obsession of the public with sporting activity is anything to go by. The public allover the world is becoming more dependants on sports as a source of entertainment with the loyalty to certain sporting activity increasing.

However, it should be noted that the fans are not fully responsible for the huge salaries because other factors also play a part in the determination of the salaries. There are several interest groups such as managers of big multinational corporations who are able to use their influence to lobby for restrictions that favor them. These corporate managers have been able to use the sporting personality to market their products due to the great obsession the general public have had with prominent athletes. Owners of some of these players have received huge sponsorship from big companies which is enough to pay the athletes without the support of the central government. The corporate involvement in the sporting activities is also a major factor that contributes to the large salaries given to athletes. This factor is also dependent on the choices made by the fans. If the sporting activity has large number of fans, it is likely to attract more corporate managers to sponsor the activities. The loyalty of the public to athletics and other sports is therefore the main factor contributing to the huge salaries paid by sportsmen.

Teachers and other professionals have complained that despite the value that is given to education, their earning compared to sportsmen is not comparable. However, it is evident from these complains that the American society does not give as much value to education as to entertainment accrued from sporting activities. The Americans should therefore not complain about educators being paid less to educate their children than the athletes. The Americans are willing to pay athletes more than they are willing to pay for their childrens education. For this reason, a prominent athlete today is capable of earning in one season more than most of the highly learned professionals are likely to earn in their lifetime. Despite the high number of Americans attending athletics event allover the country and adoring great athletes, some of the athletes have been surrounded by many controversies. The behaviors of some of the professional athletes outside the field which has been published by media to the fine details leaves every body wondering whether these personalities are worth being considered as role models to the young American generation. The undesirable behaviors have been directly attributed to the huge salaries these young professional athletes receive (Schneider, 2001).

Despite the large increase in the salaries received by professional athletes in the last few decades, many people have come out to defend the athletes huge pay. The high pay has been considered a positive trend which indicates people in America are becoming more prosperous. The pay rise should not be analyzed by considering the negative aspects of the trend towards other professionals or as a dangerous surge in the profession.

Economists have used the increased salaries paid to professional athletes to analyze the economic power of the American society. This analysis has been useful in the past in the analysis of the alleged declining living standards among the American society. The increasing salaries among the professional athletes indicate that the American society is better off in terms of their economic strength. Despite the declining living standard, the American society has the economic ability to pay the athletes. The society imputes a higher marginal value to their entertainment through sporting. It is also wrong to argue that the Americans are spending more on sports than other important aspects of the society such as education. It is also wrong to conclude that based on the huge pay awarded to the professional athletes, the American society values professional sportsmen and sportswomen than other professionals. For example, the education in the United States spent up to 532 billion dollars while commercial sporting spent a total of 13.1 billion dollars in 1995 (Callahan, p 8). The amount spent on education is therefore not comparable with the amount of money spent on sporting activities despite the huge salaries. The disparity of the salaries received by the professional athletes compared to other professionals is explained by the principle of diminishing marginal utility.

There is one dominant factor that cannot be denied whatsoever. The abidance of professional athletes who have the physical abilities to participate in the rigors activity is very low compared to professionals in other fields. It is relatively easier to train teachers as compared to training athletes. Moreover, one professional athlete has the ability of attracting thousands of funs in the arena and thousand of others in the mass media. Even the best teachers in the world cannot effectively attend to a fraction of such number of students. Most teachers can effectively handle at most twenty five students at a time. This is true for other professionals. The number of professional athletes in the United States is very few compared to the number of individuals joining other professionals every year. For example, while only about forty rookies qualify for to the national basketball association in the country, over forty thousand individuals are awarded PhDs in the United States. The number of professional athletes may be even less. This is a basic reason why there is a large disparities between the salaries paid to the professional sportsmen relative to other professions (Callahan, pp 8).

Conclusion
It is not in doubt that sporting personality including professional athletes receives huge salaries. There has been heated debate on whether the American society has it priorities right by paying huge sums to athletes rather than other professionals such as teachers and doctors. However, the fans are to be blamed for the huge salaries. Despite this, the huge salaries are justified.

I was only five when I first accompanied my father to watch soccer. With full of anticipation, I could not keep my eyes still after hitting the bench seats. The place was full of cheerleaders, the band filled the air, and the smell of popcorns ruled the place. I was eager to see the soccer players themselves although this never made sense to a majority of spectators. My father, noticing the lack of interest in some of the spectators, he quickly turned to me and said that we had gone to exclusively watch soccer. Practically, watching soccer would seem difficult at the age of five as children could miss the ball once it went up in the air. The same applied to me. Once I mastered to follow the ball in the air, I started learning various explanations of the plays the defense, quarterbacks, running pass routes and so forth. My father also taught me about penalties, how they happen, and how they are treated. It was wonderful experience at an early age.

As the adage goes, like father like son I grew up loving soccer just like my father. It happened that all my friends and age mates knew soccer pretty well and did not get to the soccer game for other reasons such as social purposes but to watch soccer they understood the game. At thirteen, I was a strong cheerleader at high school. However, I did not make the cheer team for merit purposes I instead made it a popularity contest and something to do with outfit, social networking and making friendship. This made me not to become a cheerleader again.

I have come to love soccer immensely due to some basic reasons. Almost anyone can play soccer. It is a simple game which all people of different ages can play. Everything one needs is to find something to keep kicking around-and that is soccer This comes from the facts that the first British people used cans as soccer. It is a game not at all complicated. Some sports have complexities which distract them from being games. Contrary to soccer, it is a simple and a lot easy- to- play game.

I have a lot of interest in soccer simply because of the best workout of life which is granted from soccer. Soccer beats any other form of sports when comparing the nature of physical fitness. It does not matter how strong one is if one does not have good endurance, then one is likely to quit. This is quite interesting.

Soccer has become a source of national pride for most countries. An example is Iraq which was in great shreds. Despite this nature, Iraq managed to establish a national soccer team that represented the country during the Summer Olympics. During the opening ceremony, Iraq team came out strongly and receives a standing and enthusiastic response which was very touching. This implies that soccer can truly be a peace building venture, uniting people in times of disagreement.

In may experience in soccer, I have been able to meet all types of people. People who speak in different languages and people who come from several geographical locations are united by soccer. In addition, people from different continents meet and talk about soccer. The same soccer in Europe is the same and only soccer in America. This makes things uniform and interesting. Soccer can therefore be seen to be bringing homogeneity among all kinds of people regardless to class, race and color.

I have loved soccer because I can play it anywhere I feel like. Soccer on grass, on sand on concrete, even on my bedroom floor The ball can be kicked around anywhere one feels like kicking it. No specific place to do the kicking. Restrictions in the place to play soccer do not arise just like in other games and the requirements are-just a ball Other games may need some other requirements which in general complicate matters. The requirements in soccer are just the body (feet and head and sometimes the chest) and the ball. Obviously you need a ball and without it, it can never be called soccer.

Soccer can be played solo. Incase one finds no one to play with, it is possible to playa alone. It is a different scenario that is observed in basketball where at least two people have to be present in order to play the game or practice. Soccer is best played either alone or with someone and this gives it an advantage that it can be played anytime and anywhere without the need of anyone.

Among the most elements I admire in soccer is the international standard of soccer. Soccer can comfortably be termed as a world sport without making any flaws. It is the world most popular game that is enjoyed by people from all walks of life. All the continents have embraced soccer which only began from the west region. People from other continents have even become champions and can challenge the place where soccer was invented. Like American roulette, even the maker was not able to win the bets However, soccer is not all about luck but is about the tactics. Generally, these are some of the aspects that captivate my personal interest in soccer. I love soccer and will continue to love it No other game comes near.

Identify the three components of neuromuscular control.

The nervous system controls the contraction and relaxation of muscles bringing about movement. The brain is the part of the body that deals with the coordination of muscle movements. Neurons relay both voluntary and autonomic signal from the brain to the muscles. Neuromuscular control is composed of three components. These include volitional control, which is the conscious control of muscles or in other words voluntary control of muscles. The other component of neuromuscular control is the reflex responses. A good example of this is correction of balance while standing on one leg. Reflex response implies that information from the central nervous system must be accurately relayed to the muscles. The last component is the complex, functional movement (Denegar, Saliba  Saliba, 2009).

Differentiate between neuromuscular control deficits and muscle atrophy as causes of muscular weakness.
Muscle atrophy is in other words referred to as wasting of muscle tissue. There are two types of muscle wasting disuse atrophy and neurogenic atrophy. Disuse atrophy results from failure to exercise regularly. Muscle atrophy in many people results from lack of enough use of muscles. People who have jobs that do not entail constant motion have a high risk of developing muscle atrophy. This type of atrophy can be corrected with regular exercise. Decreased muscle tone occurs in bedridden people and astronauts who are far away from earths gravity. The other type of atrophy, neurogenic atrophy, occurs as a result of an injury to, or disease of nerves. Diseases that affect the nerves include poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Giullain-Bare syndrome. Strength of muscles decreases with age. Exercise is crucial for the development of strong bones and muscles (Lephart  Fu, 2000).

Neuromuscular control deficits lead to an impediment in personal reaction time which is a peripheral reflex. Impairment of movement about a single joint may be associated with the deficits in the regulation of the thresholds of stretch reflex of antagonists and agonist muscles (Denegar, Saliba and Saliba, 2009). Factors affecting nervous control of muscles that leads to stability or instability of the spinal cord are influenced by fatigue and mechanical rigidity of the musculoskeletal system. Rigidity in particular negatively affects the contraction of muscles in the body. Inhibition of neuromuscular control by fatigue is detrimental to runners. Fatigue leads to development of muscle imbalance and reduces neuromuscular response and also alters susceptibility of strain injury in fatigued muscles (Granata, Slota  Wilson, 2004).

Discuss the effects of swelling, pain, and joint instability on neuromuscular control.
Tension as well as of muscle exhaustion leads to muscle pain. Muscle pain is very disturbing to an individual. Stiffness and pain in the joints also leads to discomfort. A lot of joint pain involves some form of swelling  either systemic or local. The inflammatory cascade triggered by injury to the joint in conjunction with the function of the white blood cells results to swelling and redness of the joint and thus pain and immobility. Pain and inflammation of joints negatively affects the nervous control of muscles. Pain greatly hinders nervous stimulation of muscles. An impulse from the central nervous system on reaching a certain joint is not put into effect due to pain and swelling of joints which causes immobility. Swelling, pain and joint instability lead to weakness. Failure of contraction of muscles as a result of pain also leads to weakness. In case joints are frozen and unable to move as a result of inflammation, muscles are not able to cause movement. Weakness may affect one joint or limb. This is clearly illustrated when a single muscle, joint or a nerve is diseased (Denegar, Saliba, and Saliba, 2009).

I. Purpose
The purpose of the lab is to be able to understand caloric expenditure of the human body. In addition, the lab will also help us develop a regression equation that can be used to predict certain values for VO2 and caloric expenditure of the body.

II. Results
Refer to the caloric expenditure data sheet, regression graph and line.

The regression line obtained from other person cannot be used to determine the caloric expenditure of a person. The regression line obtained from other person cannot be used since the predicted equation comes from another group of values. Predicting values using regression line can only be used to predict certain value from the group of interest and not from other group. For example, if a regression line is obtained to predict disease risk of basketball players, then it cannot be used to predict disease risk of baseball players. Thus, someone elses regression line cannot be used to predict my own caloric expenditure.

The regression line obtained from own caloric expenditure cannot be used to predict values of caloric expenditure from maximal levels of exercise. Regression line can only be used to predict values within a certain range of scores. The regression line cannot be used to predict values from other range of scores. For example, if a regression line is used to predict  fat base on  the normal height of a person, then the regression line cannot be used to predict fat of a person base on the maximal height. Thus, one cannot use their own regression to estimate their caloric expenditure at maximal levels of exercise.

Table A
Heart Rate (bpm)VO2 (Lmin)STAGE 1 Steady state1111.05STAGE 2 Steady state1321.53STAGE 3 Steady state1451.8 Table B
ActivityHeart Rate (bpm)Estimated VO2 (Lmin)Estimated Caloric Expenditure (kcalmin)Walking1010.622.99Jogging1681.969.46Stair-Climbing1571.748.40Table C
ActivityTime it takes to lose 1 pound of fat - 3500 kcal (min)Walking1169.98Jogging370.10Stair-Climbing416.89 The table shows the time it takes from to lose a pound of fat from different activities. From the table, one can see that it takes shorter time to lose a pound of fat from jogging than from stair-climbing and walking.

III. Closing paragraph
After completing the laboratory, I have learned a lot about estimating caloric expenditures. First, I have learned to create an equation that will help me estimate my VO2. Second, I have learned to calculate for the estimated caloric expenditure from the estimated VO2. Lastly, I have learned using caloric expenditure to estimate the time it takes to lose fat at different activities such as walking, jogging and climbing up stairs. I thought that the method can be applied to different activities such as weightlifting and running.

IV. Data
a. Regression line and scatterplot of VO2 versus Heart rate

Regression Line
VO2  0.02(HR)   1.4, where HR is the heart rate of the person.

b. Estimated VO2 calculations
Heart rate  101
Estimated VO2  0.02HR   1.4
 0.02(101)   1.4
 2.02   1.4
 0.62

Hear rate  168
Estimated VO2  0.02HR   1.4
 0.02(168)   1.4
 3.36   1.4
 1.96

Heart rate  157
Estimated VO2  0.02HR   1.4
 0.02(157)   1.4
 3.14   1.4
 1.74

c. Estimated Caloric Expenditure calculations
VO2  0.62
4.825 kcalLVO2 X 0.62 LVO2min  (4.825 kcal X 0.62)min
 2.9915 H 2.99
VO2  1.96
4.825 kcalLVO2 X 1.96 LVO2min  (4.825 kcal X 1.96)min
 9.457 H 9.46
VO2  1.74
4.825 kcalLVO2 X 1.74 LVO2min  (4.825 kcal X 1.74)min
 8.3955 H 8.40

d. Time it takes to lose fat calculations
Walking  (3500 kcalslb)(2.9915 kcalmin)
 3500 kcalslb X 1 min2.9915 kcal
 3500 min2.9915
 1169.9816 minutes
Jogging  (3500 kcalslb)(9.457 kcalmin)
 3500 kcalslb X 1 min9.457 kcal
 3500 min9.457
 370.0962 minutes
Stair-Climbing  (3500 kcalslb)(8.3955 kcalmin)
 3500 kcalslb X 1 min8.3955 kcal
 3500 min8.3955
 416.89 minutes
Caloric Expenditure Data Sheet
Subject

MinuteSpeed (mph)Elevation ()VO2 (lmin)Heart Rate (bpm)1281.0511122.581.531323381.8145

TABLE A.
Heart Rate (bpm)VO2 (Lmin)STAGE 1 Steady state1111.05STAGE 2 Steady state1321.53STAGE 3 Steady state1451.8

TABLE B.
ActivityHeart Rate (bpm)Estimated VO2 (Lmin)Estimated Caloric Expenditure (kcalmin)Walking1010.622.99Jogging1681.969.46Stair-Climbing1571.748.40

This essay will trace the historical development of talent identification and excellence in sports.  It will also analyse the contributing factors that are essential to achieve excellence in sporting performance.

The Olympics was held in Athens in 2004, with Great Britain finishing in tenth place, winning a total of thirty (30) medals consisting of nine gold, nine silver, and twelve bronze. (Olympic results, 2009)  Three of the total nine gold medals came from track and field.  Great Britain was successful in the 1500 and 800 meters won by Kelly Holmes and the 4 x 100 metres won by the men. (Olympic results, 2009)

According to Hill (2007), Arnold stated that after competing at the games of 1996, many athletes would simply return to their former careers.  This highlighted the need for greater funding to match the athletes needs.  It often took six to eight years to maximize an athletes potential it is not easy to produce future champions, and a delay in the release of additional funding will only prolong the developmental process.
 
Before 1998, the British Olympic team did not receive any official or state funding it merely relied on private donations and fund raising.  This included an appeal in the USA to raise 2 million dollars prior to the 1996 games so that Great Britain could send a full team. (Hill, 2007)

It is vital to have a systematic application of high standard sports science and coaching to squads of full-time athletes in order to achieve success at elite levels of competition.  This was the first recognition by the authorities in the UK which stemmed from a policy document entitled Sport Raising the Game, which was published prior to the games of 1996 by the Prime Minister John Major and Sports Minister Ian Sprout. (Hill, 2007)

UK sport is the UKs high performance sports agency, operating under the motto working in partnership to lead sport in the UK to world class success. (uksport.gov, 2009)  Since funding began in May 1997 (see Figure 1), the amount of funding each sport has received from UK Sports World Class Performance Programme are as follows (uksport.gov.uk, 2009)

Figure 1. Funding Figures (uksport.gov, 2009).
Sydney and Athens Olympiad figures relate only to podium level funding.  Sports councils were responsible for supporting development and talent level activities in their nations during that time. (uksport.gov, 2009)
These figures reflect the total package of performance funding from talent to podium which became the responsibility of UK Sport on the 01 April, 2006.  Sports science and medicine, which were not previously incorporated as part of a sports funding award, were now included in the cost of the figures. (uksport.gov, 2009)

Home nation sports councils funded governing bodies of sports administered on a home nation basis within the UK respectively prior to 01 April, 2006. (uksport.gov, 2009)

In the early 1990s, Pickup (1996) described the gradual increase in investment in the National Coaching Foundation (NCF) and the working relationship with the Sports Council.  The organization immediately became very active in promoting coach education.  It rapidly increased its range of interests, facilitating a national system of accredited coach education materials and awards training coach educators publishing materials to support education establishing a network of National Coaching Centers hosting workshops and conferences liaising with NGBs and other agencies and taking a promotion and advocacy role.  The Champion Coaching Programme was a notable success when it started in 1990-91. (Lyle, 2003)

The Youth Sport Trust, established in 1994, is a registered charity that aims to build brighter future for the young people.  This noble endeavor is achieved by enhancing the quality of young peoples physical education (PE) and sporting opportunities.  Youth Sport Trust wanted to increase young peoples participation and enjoyment of PE and school sports.  The organization aims to provide the young people with an opportunity to experience and enjoy different types of activity suitable to their age ensure that youngsters receive the best teaching, coaching and resources possible provide them the chance to further develop their potentials and to help young people live healthy and active lives and to be the best they can be. (youthsporttrust.org, 2009)
 
The Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS) is a unique partnership between Educational Institutions and National Governing Bodies setting out to maintain a balance between academic life and training as a performance athlete. (tass.gov.uk, 2009)
 
Athletes are provided with tailor made package services from TASS comprising of services such as Coaching, Strength and Conditioning, Talented Athlete Lifestyle Support, Physiotherapy, Sports Medicine, and support with competition and training expenses. (tass.gov.uk, 2009)
 
Istvan Balyi developed the athletic performance model, known as the Long Term Athletic Development model (LTAD) in the1990s that exists until the present.  From five stages in 2001 to six in 2004, the LTAD has been developed. (sportdevelopment.org.uk, 2007)  The first issue of FHS in September 1998 included an article about Long term planning.  This was the first of three articles which Istvan Balyi described as his Long Term Athletic Development Mode  Training to Train Training to Compete Training to Win.  However, for most sports he admitted that his original model was not correct, and that it was missing a key vital component - the initial FUNdamental phase on which the others are built. (mmu.ac.uk, 2009)
 
An article written in the summer of 2001 by Istvan Balyi for the Canadian publication Coaches Report explained his LTAD Model (now adopted by British Columbia) and highlighted the key problems and issues with their existing sports system. (mmu.ac.uk, 2009)

Scientific evidence has revealed that for a talented playerathlete to reach elite levels, it would take about 8-12 years of training.  This adds up to slightly more than three hours of practice daily for ten years referred to as the ten year or 10,000 hour rule. (sportdevelopment.org.uk, 2004)

Early specialization and late specialization sports are general sports classifications.  Some sports such as diving, figure skating, gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and table tennis require sport-specific specialization in training, early specialization refers to this fact. (sportdevelopment.org.uk, 2004)
 
Track and field, combative sports, cycling, racquet sports, rowing and all team sports are late specialization sports requiring a generalized approach to early training.  For these sports, the emphasis during the first two phases of training (see Figure 2) should be on the development of motor and technical-tactical skills.  A four-phase model is required for early specialization sports while a six-stage model is required for late specialization sports. (sportdevelopment.org.uk, 2004)

Figure 2.  Specialization Model (sportdevelopment.org.uk, 2004)

Commentary by Roberts and Treasure on childrens motivation for sport might have particular relevance for coaches considering how their practice with children, who have yet to become committed to performance sport, might be more appropriately sensitized.  This is particularly important given the continued interest in the formulation of formalized talent identification and talent development schemes (TID) in the UK.  Current interests in the UK regarding TID (e.g. a proposed pilot by Scottish Sports Council, 1998) appear to be based on experiences learned from the Australian Sports Search model.  In this model, judgments are made on childrens physical potential for sport by a testing protocol linking test achievements, developmental norms and anticipated sports potential to a computer database. (Cross and Lyle, 1999)

In 1995 Sports Minister Ian Sprout stated in a document that the Sports Council would withdraw from the promotion of mass participation and informal recreation (Hill, 2007 pg 37).  This was a clear shift of policy which put high performance at the centre of sports development in the UK.  Houlihan and White (2002) reported that commitment to establish an elite sports training centre in the form of a British Academy of Sport, modeled on the successful Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) at Canberra, was the centerpiece of this policy statement. (Hill, 2007)

The government supported the view that the only means whereby Britain can achieve success in the global arena was through a systematic and professional approach.  Tony Blaire stated that we must have the most professional system for talent development and support of excellence and that we should learn lessons from our competitor nations.  Fourteen-year-olds with the most talent would be identified and offered a place at one of the sports colleges which in turn would be linked to the UKSI network. (Hill, 2007)

Most of the ideas for the new academy had been based on the successful AIS, and this created problems.  The AIS only worked successfully as a finishing school because there was a strong and well organized network below it encouraging grass-roots level and developing skills systematically and picking off the best talent. (Hill, 2007)  The conclusion by Bent et al. (2001) suggested that what they saw dazzled Ian Sprout and his advisors.  By paying less attention to what they could not see, they failed to grasp the importance of the people part of the mix. (Hill, 2007)
 
The UK was far away from introducing a well-structured system of support for its elite athletes, and it was not until the spring of 1999 that a new plan was unveiled. (Hill, 2007)

Set up in 2005 the English Institute of Sport (EIS) is a nationwide network of sport science and sports medical services, designed to foster the talents of elite athletes. (eis2win.co.uk, 2009)

Athletes out of the EIS High Performance Centres can still access expert services such as sports medicine, physiotherapy, soft tissue therapy, nutrition, psychology, biomechanics, performance analysis, talent identification, strength and conditioning and performance lifestyle. (eis2win.co.uk, 2009)
 
In 2008 after the Beijing Olympic Games, Great Britain came out as overall fourth place in the medals tally, winning a total of forty seven (47) medals consisting of nineteen gold, thirteen silver, and fifteen bronze. (olympic.org, 2009)

These are the areas (see Figure 3) where Great Britain won medals.
 
Figure 3. Medalists (results.beijing, 2008)
 From the above data, it is evident that Great Britain excelled in cycling, with a total of eight medals, five of which were gold.  Great Britain also did well in rowing, sailing and swimming as a matter of fact, it won medals in said sports.  Surprisingly, Great Britain did not do well in athletics, winning only one gold medal in the womens 400 meter race.   UK athletics has declined alarmingly since the last re-organization of UK athletics in 1997.  UK finished 4th in the World Track and Field Championships in 1997, in 2001 they fell to the 9th place, 11th in 2003 and 16th in 2005. (British athletics clubs, 2006)

However, another re-organization is being undertaken in the athletics field in the UK with the imminent 2012 London Olympics.  Many leading clubs and authorities have challenged the proposed changes, believing that the approach to developing athletics in the UK has been, and continues to be, misguided, costly and ineffective. (British athletics clubs, 2006)

Since UKA took over governance of athletics in 1997, the amount of funding reaching grass roots has been appallingly small.  This is in complete contrast to the situation in France, Sweden and the USA.  The performances of UK athletes and UK teams have also declined rapidly since 1997 (british athleticsclubs, 2006).

In contrast to athletics, cyclists have been very successful and have been achieving highest levels of success.  Their success has been attributed to the inspirational leadership of the national performance director at the Sydney Olympics, Peter Keen and Dave Brailsford, in charge since 2003, who have recruited some of the worlds best coaches and sports scientists.  Jan Van Eijden, a German former world sprint champion, and Scot Gardner, an Australian who was recognized as the worlds leading sprint sports scientist, are working closely with Pendleton.  These are two of Brailsfords most recent signings who typify the quality of their team. (independent.co.uk, 2008)

In every conceivable field Brailsford believes in seeking an advantage, particularly in the areas of nutrition, fitness medicine, coaching, tactics, psychology and technology.  Sixteen years ago on a revolutionary bike, Chris Boardman won Olympic gold.  He heads a research and development team that strives constantly to make the British bikes go faster.  For his riders to spring a surprise in Beijing, Brailsford deliberately held back some technical innovations in Manchester (independent.co.uk, 2008).

 The table (see figure 4) outlines the investment that sports will receive for the London Olympiad.  The total package is represented by each figure over the four year period up to April 2013 (uksport.gov.uk, 2009).

Figure 4. Latest Funding Figures. (uksport.gov.uk, 2009).

In conclusion, a lot has been set in place to improve the success of Great Britain on the national stage.  Before 1999 funding was hard to come by, authorities in the UK acknowledged that without a systematic application of high standard sport, success at elite levels of competition could no longer be achieved.

UK Sport UKs high performance sports agency began funding in May 1997.
Derived from The National Coaching Foundation, the Champion Coaching Programme was a notable success in 1990-91.
 
Charities such as Sports Trust established in 1994 helped to enhance young peoples participation and enjoyment of PE and school sport.

The Talent Athlete Scholarship Scheme provides athletes with tailor made package services.
Istvan Balyis Long Term Athlete Development model looked at the long term development of junior to senior athletes with the specialization model.

Talent identification was based on Australias successes which did not work for Great Britain.
Other recent institutes such as The English Institute of Sport have helped with expert services.
 
Recent funding has seen large amounts of money being spent on the more successful sports such as cycling, rowing, canoeing, sailing, and swimming.  Athletics is still heavily funded despite the lack of success and potential sports such as boxing and gymnastics are now allocated with more funding.
 
In the 2008 Olympics held in Beijing, Great Britain finished as overall fourth place in the medals tally.  Cycling was the area in which Great Britain excelled the most.

Gauging from the recent developments, Great Britain is likely to improve in sport.   There have been mistakes in the past that did not result to positive outcomes, but these mistakes can help towards avoiding similar ones.  Overall tenth place at the Athens Olympics in 2004 to overall fourth place at the Beijing Olympics in 2008 proves that progress has been made.

What is a concussion
A concussion is a condition that suddenly alters the movement of the brain. It results from a brain injury that may cause a violent movement of the brain in the skull. These sudden violent movements may bruise, twist or shake the brain thus interfering with the mental status of a person. In this shake up, brain tissues are damaged and the membranes, blood vessels and nerves are torn. The aftermath of the concussion however depends on how extensive the injury was (Cunha, 2010).

What causes concussions
Concussions may be experienced as a result of accidents that may injure the brain due to the impact of a knock on the head. The knocks that cause concussions are experienced from the impact of blunt forces. These accidents may be as a result of the head being struck with a blunt object, a car accident or a heavy fall. In other cases, concussions may be caused by severe distress caused by a traumatic experience. This head injury is normally of a closed nature as the skull does not break in most cases. An open injury refers to the one whereby the skull breaks. In this case, other visible injuries that may lead to bleeding are ruled out as concussions (Cunha, 2010).

Signs and symptoms of concussions
People suffering from concussions will exhibit symptoms and signs such as memory loss, confusion and unconsciousness. Other signs and symptoms may include headaches, a blurred vision and slurred speech. Other people may experience dizziness, nausea and confusion. It becomes increasingly difficult for the infected person to coordinate or balance themselves in all aspects. These people will be continually anxious and they will tend to become tired very fast and out of light tasks. Making decisions becomes a task for the affected persons and they experience difficulty when thinking. Severe concussions may involve seizures, vomiting as well as a memory loss that is prolonged. Other symptoms that characterize severe concussions include visible head bruises and a fractured skull. It is important to note that concussions are not necessarily life threatening though they bring along problems. These problems may either be long term or short term depending on the intensity of the injury (Drake, 2007).

Types of concussions
Mild concussion
Mild concussions refer to the brain injuries that are not severe. In this case, the injured person may become slightly unconscious. They will feel a bit dazed for a short while after which they will regain consciousness. Other people may not exhibit any knocked out (Cunha, 2010).

Severe concussion
Severe concussion as the name depicts are more serious and the injured person may loose consciousness for a long time. It will take a long while before the person regains consciousness. (Cunha, 2010).

How to diagnose and treat a concussion
The first step towards treating concussions is seeking immediate attention from a physician who will be able to differentiate a concussion from another severe brain injury. A doctor will be better placed to diagnose the problem with the infected person. People who have suffered head injuries from sporting activities, car accidents or huge falls must be taken to the hospital immediately. The medic first seeks to establish how the injury occurred and since this condition is associated with memory loss, questions such as what year the accident happened are asked. This helps the physician to tell if the patient has suffered a memory loss. The other procedures that the medic will carry out on the person will test for hearing, vision and reflex problems. Coordination will also be screened as part of the neurological exam. The medic may also find it important to run scans such as an MRI or a CT scan. These scans are done in a bid to test the extent of internal bleeding if any (Drake, 2007).

Monitoring the affected person also helps in gauging the extent of the concussion. It also helps in the healing process and it ensures that the person regains the lost senses. Doctors will mostly send the person home and instruct their care giver to monitor how they are responding since the concussion occurred. One of the treatments that a medic will prescribe is the monitoring of the laid out symptoms. This helps them analyze the extent of the injury. They may also require that the person be woken up in regular intervals during their sleep. This helps in ensuring that the persons normal consciousness is coming back to them (Drake, 2007). The doctor may at times recommend hospitalization for a few days for closer monitoring by the medical personnel. This may take a couple of days since depending on the intensity of the head injury, the symptoms may be varied. Other people may not experience any change in them resulting from the injuries sustained. This could be risky as the damage may have already established itself. Another reason why monitoring by medical personnel is useful is because concussions may not be detected easily.  It is advisable for the affected person to keep off from any activity that may cause further injury. It is very dangerous for a person to suffer another concussion before the initial one heals completely. The treatment administered for concussions includes relaxation, rest and pain-relieving medication where necessary. However, severe cases may require drastic measures (Drake, 2007).

Home treatment for a concussion
It is sometimes inevitable to opt for home treatment. Home treatment or self treatment requires knowledge that helps in curbing the effects of concussions. It could also be a first aid procedure. Incase one is suffering from a bleeding scalp, a bruise will show. This bruise is otherwise known as a hematoma. This should not cause alarm as it disappears shortly. To reduce the swell, it is highly recommendable to use ice on the bruise. This ice must never be applied directly as it may be uncomfortable for the victim. Wrapping the ice in a cloth and placing it on the hematoma will work perfectly. This treatment is not restricted to ice. Frozen vegetables also offer the same remedy. They even work better as they offer a larger surface area that will cover the head well. This treatment must be administered for up to 30 minutes to ensure that cooling takes place. This should be done repeatedly in intervals of four hours. However, this treatment maybe futile if it is past 48 hours since the accident occurred (Cunha, 2010).

Classification system for concussions
Concussions are classified in accordance to their severity. Currently, five grades are used in this classification system as follows the grade I concussion is the least severe one in these classifications. A person suffering from a grade I concussion will experience minor symptoms. The major symptom is a short state of confusion.

This may pass unnoticed and many people are not even aware that they have suffered it at a point in their lives. A person struck by the grade II concussion will experience symptoms whose life is up to five minutes. These symptoms may include confusion and memory loss among the others aforementioned. In the grade III concussion, the person will suffer memory loss and confusion for more than five minutes. Other symptoms as listed earlier may accompany them. Grade IV concussions involve loss of consciousness for up to ten minutes. The other minor symptoms may accompany this state. In the Grade V concussion, the person becomes unconscious for ten minutes and over and exhibits all the other aforementioned symptoms (Drake, 2000).

The classification system helps people determine how long the affected person will take to recover. This also helps them take the necessary action towards the treatment of the person. Studies conducted on brain injuries have shown that the intensity of the concussions depends on the location of the injury. The front part of the brain gives fewer problems as compared to the right, left and back part of the brain. A condition otherwise known as post concussion syndrome is present in many people. This is the period whereby the concussion symptoms are still present many months after the injury. These symptoms include confusion and loss of memory among the other concussion symptoms. Depending on how long these symptoms linger, the doctor will administer the right prescription that may include rehabilitation therapy (Drake, 2000).

Concussions in hockey
Many hockey players have been unfortunate to suffer from concussions.  Hockey is a risky game and most of them get their heads butted by the blunt hockey sticks as well as hard falls. These being the primary causes for concussions, their lives are constantly in danger. Many hockey players suffer from concussions on a regular basis. Clinical depression is one of the conditions that hockey players suffer. This is occasioned by the several numbers of concussions they suffer. Another condition common with hockey players is cognitive impairment which has slowed down their thought process. This condition is similar to the famous Alzheimers disease which has similar effects on the brain (Nicholson, 2009).

The golden rule for treating hockey concussions
To fully recover from a concussion, the affected person must follow a routine rule to ensure that they are completely healed. A hockey player must never venture back to the sport until they are given a clean bill of health. This is necessary and failure to meet this condition may lead to more severe problems. A person recovering from a concussion may be slow and clumsy due to the effects of this condition. This is very risky to the player as well as his mates in the field. He could end up getting a worse injury or causing a life threatening injury to his mates. The post concussion syndrome may also affect the player who has not fully recovered and this could bring more health problems. Another condition known as the second impact syndrome may make the previous injury worse. This may lead to a brain swell on second impact and this is very dangerous to the life of the hockey player (Bye, 2010).

Follow up on concussions
Victims of concussions will have to attend follow-up clinics as recommended by their doctors.  Neurologists are best placed for these follow ups due to their diverse knowledge in the treatment and recovery from head injuries. Follow ups in the treatment of concussions are vital since some symptoms do not register themselves until much later. Not all symptoms and signs may show and people may tend to indulge in sporting activities when they have not fully recovered. This is suicidal as there is a high risk of a multiple concussion. Other people may ignore subtle symptoms like a headache or a slight memory loss. Other symptoms that people may tend to ignore include changes in their personalities as well as their cognitive abilities. This may in turn be detrimental and causes the victim more harm (Cunha, 2010).

Long term effects of concussions
Some of the long-term effects of concussions include memory loss and unconsciousness. This condition is prone in cases whereby a sportsman suffers from recurrent concussions. As concussions are cumulative, people who have suffered from them before are more liable to getting others in future. These people may thereby be susceptible to long term effects of concussions. They may suffer from neurological disorders which will include memory loss which is long-term as well as other psychiatric disorders. Other persons who do not have a concussion history may be exempted from these long term effects. Severe brain injury has been reported in persons who go back to their sporting activities before they are fully healed. This affects the persons overall performance and this includes slowness in thinking and responding to situations. Researchers have been working hard to measure the long-term effects of concussions. This has birthed an Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) computer program. This program is for use by the sportsmen and it tests their reaction time, memory and processing speed. The National Hockey League (NHL) has adopted this program and uses it t test its players (Quinn, 2010).

Short term effects of concussions
When a concussion occurs, the affected person may experience subtle symptoms which will disappear with time depending on the extent of the injury. This condition is referred to as the post concussive syndrome. Some of the short term effects of concussions include a headache. The injured person may suffer from a headache for up to two weeks. This headache will however disappear after taking a painkiller. Some of these painkillers include Advil, Tylenol or Motrin. Confusion also occurs in the short term and the victim will soon regain normality. In other cases, the affected person may vomit or feel nauseated for some time. These symptoms however disappear with time. The victim may also suffer from a short memory loss whereby they fail to remember how and where they got hurt. They may also perseverate for sometime but this disappears after a short time. It is important to note that recovery from these symptoms will vary with the intensity of the head injury (Cunha, 2010).

Prevention for short and long term affects of concussions
It is important to protect oneself against unforeseen dangers when sporting. In hockey, proper care must be taken for the head in order to prevent injuries which may lead to a concussion. A helmet is highly recommended in hockey since head injuries are very prominent either out of falls or being hit with the hockey stick. Wearing the right shoes for the right sport is very important. Many concussions have been reported out of wrong sporting shoes. The player thus slips and falls and ends up hurting the head and concussions could occur. The right shoes will prevent the player from accidental falls thus keeping head injuries at bay. Concussions are bound to occur at a point since sometimes accidents just can not be prevented. Hockey players need proper training on first aid skills necessary for a person suffering from a concussion. This will enable them treat their team mates and thus prevent further damage. The primary first aid measures for a person suffering from a concussion include keeping them talking and awake. Slipping into sleep may cause further damage to the persons neurological activities (Contributor, 2010).

It is vital to ensure that the injured person does not move at all. This will help keep them together thus limiting the possibility of suffering further harm. An ambulance must then be called urgently as it is important to seek a diagnosis as well as treatment from a professional. Loosing consciousness is significant with concussions and any person suffering from such a condition as a result of a head injury must be taken to hospital at once. A mild concussion allows a player to go back to the sport in a weeks time. This is because mild concussions heal quickly and the effects are easily contained. The disappearance of the symptoms is a clear indication that one can go back to play. Lingering symptoms however need more monitoring since they indicate that the person is still unwell. Placing this person under a doctors supervision is greatly recommended (Contributor, 2010).

Efforts being made by the National Hockey League (NHL) to curb concussions
The National Hockey League (NHL), the official governing body for hockey has not been left behind in fighting concussions amongst its hockey players. It is however a difficult fight since head shots elimination is an uphill task. These headshots define the game of hockey and doing away with them or limiting them would be translated to killing the game. Colin Campbell, the hockey operations director said, and I quote, Its not hits to the head, its shoulder hits to the head, shoulder hits have accounted for many head injuries which have led to concussions. Their elimination will lead to a lower number of hits to the head. This move will however give a dull game since most of the shoulder hits on the contrary account for great hits which lead to record wins. This was his response to the many efforts that NHL is making towards the reduction of concussion cases in their players (Shoalts, 2010).

One key move that the league has made is the elimination of head shots which play a key role in head injuries thus concussions. The NHL has also ensured that a set of rules that forbid illegal head contacts among the players are in place. One of the NHLs rules has banned the making of hits using the elbow. These rules have however been faced with controversy since some faults have not been penalized. The NHL has promised its players and fans that rules curbing head injuries will be in place. This league has been working on concussion reductions for 20 years now and they are positive that hockey will become a safe sport in the near future. The directors of the league however admit that it will not be easy as disagreements on the right measures are many but they remain positive that they will reach a consensus. This will definitely see to it that head injuries are reduced and this will bring the numbers down. The committee also warns its players to be careful as this is a physical game and this makes them prone to injuries (Shoalts, 2010).

Conclusion
Concussions in hockey are common and their elimination as stated by the National Hockey League (NHL) is next to impossible (Shoalts, 2010). However, with proper care on the part of the sportsmen and their managers, they can be averted. Dressing right for the game is vital and so is following the laid down rules and regulations. Wearing of helmets to protect the head is a step towards reducing the impact of the falls and hits the players suffer while in play. Using the right shoes for the game is also vital as incidences of slipping and getting a head injury are limited (Contributor, 2010).

The NHL is also putting its foot forward to ensure that the players play right and get punished for dangerous fouls. This makes them more careful and disciplined (Shoalts, 2010). From this research, it is important to note that concussions can be prevented and treated when they occur. Prevention is however better than cure and players must be well armed with tips on how to stay clear of head injuries. First aid measures for concussions are also in place and they prevent further harm to the victim.

For those suffering from long term effects of concussions, all is not lost since they can be put under therapy which will help them go back to their normal lives (Cunha, 2010). Innovations like the introduction of the ImPACT computer program is an asset to the National Hockey League (NHL) as monitoring of the players is possible. This helps in determining how fit they are to play and how prone they are to concussion attacks. This enables the team managers make informed decisions when selecting their teams. Hockey players need be informed that concussions are not life threatening and that they will be able to get over their short term and long term effects. They should therefore soldier on and live their passion to the fullest with a positive mind.

Confine your report solely to the points specified below, paying close attention to the length limits. Marks are also given against each question (total marks 80). For some questions, you will need to consult textbooks or other reference sources. The report should be handed in, at the Undergraduate Office (TM1-85), within ONE week of the date on which the practical is done. The report must represent your own work, and must not be written collaboratively. You must also not copy material from the internet, textbooks or elsewhere. An electronic version of this form is available on Weblearn.

NAMEID NUMBER GROUPDATE OF PRACTICAL
(i) Electrocardiography

Measurements at rest
Attach a print-out of the ECG recording with your subject at rest, showing the different features of the cardiac cycle labelled with the appropriate letters. (5 marks)

Briefly describe the functional significance of the features labelled in your diagram, in terms of both electrical changes occurring in the heart, and also the mechanical effects they give rise to (15 lines maximum 15 marks).

The waves seen on a normal ECG indicate the electrical activity that happens to the heart when it under-Goes cardiac action potentials. The 1st wave visible is called the P wave, this wave fires at the start of theSA node and represents the depolarization of the atrias muscle fibers. Between each wave there are  Intervals, the PR interval represents the travel time of electrical signals from the Sinus node through theAtrium to the AV node to the Purkinjie-His system to activate ventricular myocardial cells. The next Wave is called the QRS complex. This wave represents all ventricular muscle cell depolarizations and  Varies between each individual but usually lasts between 0.06-0.10s. The ST interval shows all of the Ventricular myocardium cells depolarizing. The QT interval is called the electrical systole of the Ventricles and lasts about 0.4s. Lastly the T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles.

Calculate the following variables using the print-out of your ECG recording. Each variable should be measured on 3 cardiac cycles, and an average taken. The cardiac cycles from which the measurements were taken should be labelled on your print-out (as 1,2,3). Make sure you use the units specified in the Table. (5 marks)

VariableUnits123AverageCYCLE TIME1
ms0.91.11.01.0 HEART RATE2
BPM65797272P-R INTERVAL
ms0.30.20.20.23Q-T INTERVAL
ms0.40.60.60.53T-Q INTERVAL
ms0.30.30.40.331The time for a single complete cardiac cycle (express this in milliseconds - ms).
2Calculate as beats per minute (BPM) using the cycle times already calculated

Attach the printout(s) showing ECG during the Valsalva manoeuvre, and during deep breathing.
The Valsalva manoeuvre usually results in an increased heart rate (sometimes after an initial, smaller, decrease in heart rate). Investigate whether your results showed this effect, and explain the underlying physiological mechanisms (5 marks)

The increased pressure from the Valsalva manoeuvre  increase heart rate because the muscles feel an extra-Ordinary amount of pressure and the only way to relieve that pressure is by bring more oxygen and bloodTo the body, which is why most health professionals ask you to take a deep breath and release when thy do This technique so that the person doesnt pass out. The results showed this effect.

The effect of breathing on heart rate is known as sinus arrhythmia, but its magnitude differs considerably between individuals. Evaluate whether your results showed this effect, briefly explain the physiological mechanisms that underlie it, and suggest why it might improve respiratory function. (5 marks)
Physiologically respiration and cardiac function go hand in hand because oxygen is need to maintain Adequate blood flow throughout the body. Having lower blood pressure when exercising improves Respiratory function because the less oxygen a person has to expend during exercise leaves more oxygenReserves when the person is at rest. In the end my results indicated this effect.

Measurements during exercise
Attach the print-out of your ECG recording under exercise conditions. Calculate the following variables as before, but using the exercise ECG data. (5 marks)
VariableUnits123AverageCYCLE TIME
ms1.71.91.51.7HEART RATE
BPM122137108108P-R INTERVAL
ms0.10.070.09 0.087Q-T INTERVAL
ms0.20.10.10.13T-Q INTERVAL
ms0.060.050.050.053

Complete the following Table, inserting the words contracted or relaxed into the different boxes as appropriate

P-R intervalQ-T intervalT-Q intervalAtriaContractedRelaxed ContractedVentriclesRelaxedContracted Relaxed

Using the average figures from the first two Tables above, calculate the percentage change, in these three intervals, when going from the resting to the exercise state
P-RQ-TT-Q change37.824.5 16.1 (5 marks)

It is normally found that the T-Q interval is shortened to a relatively greater degree than are the other cardiac intervals, as heart rate increases. Evaluate whether your results show this, and suggest why this is beneficial to cardiovascular function  (5 lines maximum 5 marks)

My results show this function. The shortening the QT interval during exercise is beneficial to cardiovascular function because when a person is vigorously exercising heshe needs greater amounts of blood pumping to the throughout the system so it can reach the muscles. Which means that having a shorterQT interval allows the blood to exit the left ventricle sooner and into the aorta where the blood is then ejected to the entire body thereby bring more oxygen to the muscles.

(ii) Blood pressure measurements
Give the blood pressure measurements made under resting and exercise conditions. (5 marks)
(all readings as mm Hg)Right armLeft armSystolicDiastolicSystolicDiastolicAt rest14565167107After exercise10872127114

Define the terms cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. State the relationship between these two variables and blood pressure, in the form of an equation, and explain the physiological mechanisms that underlie the formula. (10 lines maximum 10 marks)

Cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood flowing through either the systemic or the pulmonaryCircuit per minute and is often measure in liters per minute. Total peripheral resistance is defined as the  Resistance flow through a system of vessels.  In terms of an equation, blood pressure  cardiac output x Peripheral resistance. Physiologically, when cardiac output is increased, which is heart rate multiplied by Stoke volume, the capillary flow is increased. On the other hand when peripheral resistance is increased, Capillary flow decreases. Therefore, blood pressure is often increased when cardiac output is increased andPeripheral resistance is decreased.

Blood pressure measurements are generally higher during exercise than at rest, and during dynamic exercise like cycling systolic pressure usually increases more than diastolic. Do your measurements agree with these assertions Additionally, explain how changes in cardiac output and peripheral resistance during exercise combine to cause observed changes in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. (10 lines maximum 10 marks)

My measurements do not agree with these assertions because both my left and right arm after exerciseIndicated a decrease in blood pressure, but both arms at rest showed an increase in blood pressure. As Mentioned before, the increase in blood pressure is attributed to two variables cardiac output and Peripheral resistance. When a person exercises their heart rate and stroke volume (volume of blood ejectedDuring systole) increase but resistance decreases. The width of vessels increases because blood and oxygen Need to be sent to the muscles so that the person can continue to exercise without falling over. Therefore, The combination of increased CO and decreased PR increase both the SBP and DBP during exercise becauseThe muscles need blood and oxygen to keep going, which in turn allows the individual to exercise longer.

The purpose of the activity is to determine the aerobic capacity of the body by predicting and calculating the VO2max of the body. In addition, relationships between predicted VO2max and other factors such as  bodyfat from skinfolds, hours spent on aerobic exercise in a week and the actual VO2max will be determined.

II. Results
1. See Aerobic Capacity data sheet and calculations at the end of the report.

a. Correlation was used to determine the relationship between predicted VO2max and  bodyfat from skinfolds. The null hypothesis to be tested is that there is no significant relationship between  predicted VO2max and  bodyfat from skinfolds. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted at 0.05 significance level. The decision is to reject the null hypothesis when the p-value of the correlation is less than 0.05 significance level. Otherwise, fail to reject the null hypothesis. After conducting Pearson correlation analysis, it has been found out that the Pearson correlation coefficient is equal to -0.819 with a p0.01. The correlation coefficient means that there is a strong decreasing relationship between predicted VO2max and  bodyfat from skinfolds. Since the p-value of the Pearson correlation coefficient is less than the significance level of 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, we are 95 confident that there is a significant relationship between predicted VO2max and  bodyfat from skinfolds.

b. Correlation was used to determine the relationship between predicted VO2max and hours spent on aerobic exercise in a week. The null hypothesis to be tested is that there is no significant relationship between  predicted VO2max and hours spent on aerobic exercise in a week. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted at 0.05 significance level. The decision is to reject the null hypothesis when the p-value of the correlation is less than 0.05 significance level. Otherwise, fail to reject the null hypothesis. After conducting Pearson correlation analysis, it has been found out that the Pearson correlation coefficient is equal to -0.555 with a p0.05. The correlation coefficient means that there is a moderate decreasing relationship between predicted VO2max and hours spent on aerobic exercise in a week. Since the p-value of the Pearson correlation coefficient is greater than the significance level of 0.05, the null hypothesis is not rejected. Thus, we are 95 confident that there is no significant relationship between predicted VO2max and hours spent on aerobic exercise in a week.

Correlation was used to determine the relationship between predicted VO2max and actual VO2max. The null hypothesis to be tested is that there is no significant relationship between  predicted VO2max and actual VO2max. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted at 0.05 significance level. The decision is to reject the null hypothesis when the p-value of the correlation is less than 0.05 significance level. Otherwise, fail to reject the null hypothesis. After conducting Pearson correlation analysis, it has been found out that the Pearson correlation coefficient is equal to 0.891 with a p0.01. The correlation coefficient means that there is a strong increasing relationship between predicted VO2max and actual VO2max. Since the p-value of the Pearson correlation coefficient is less than the significance level of 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, we are 95 confident that there is significant relationship between predicted VO2max and actual VO2max.

III. Closing Paragraph
After completing the lab, I have learned to compute for the aerobic capacity of my body using predicted VO2,max computation. In addition, I have learned several relationships between the predicted VO2max of the body and other factors that can probably affect the aerobic capacity of the body  bodyfat on skinfold and the number of hours spent on aerobic exercises. Lastly, the laboratory also taught me about the relationship between the actual and the predicted values for VO2max.

IV. Data
Computations
Steady State Heart Rate (155  156)2  (311)2  155.5 or 155 bpm
Steady State Workload 4 kg or 1200 kgmin
Predicted VO2max 4.0 Lmin
Age Corrected Predicted VO2max 4.0 X 1.05  4.2 Lmin
Relative Predicted VO2max (4.2 Lmin X 1000 mL)(1 L) X (81.67 kg)
 (4200 mLmin)(81.67 kg)
 51.43 mLkgmin

Aerobic Capacity Data Sheet

SubjectAge 20Bodyweight (kg) 81.67HR target range 150-160Seat height  Bodyfat from skinfolds (from lab  1) 25.96
Cycle-Ergometer WorkloadMinuteForce (kg)Power (kgmmin)Heartrate (bpm)12600130226001313260013343900142539001426412001557412001568910
Steady state HR (bpm) 155Steady state power workload (kgmin) (from Table 1) 1200Predicted VO2max (Lmin) (from Tables 3 and 4) 4.0Age correction factor (from Table 2) 1.05Age Corrected Predicted VO2max (Lmin) 4.2Relative Predicted VO2max (mlkgmin) 51.43Cardiovascular fitness category (from Table 5) Good

In the past month, how many hourswk did you spend doing aerobic exercise (Do not include warm-up, weight training, or activities other than aerobic.)
Be honest 4 hoursweek

In the present world, there is a lot of competition and therefore for there to be good business, one has to apply all the strategies that exist to attract as much customers as possible. In addition, for a business to stay in the market and to perform well, it calls for proper methods of advertising. In most of the adverts that are now being made, a good number of them are involving women in the advert. We find that every corner that we turn to, we find people especially women in the sports or other famous social activities telling us what it means to be desirable. (Wortham, 2009)

There is one common theme that exists in practically all of these adverts the women that are presented in the advert must be appealing to the people. This means that she must be good looking to the community and to all the people who chance to look at the advert. However, there are some other instances where looks alone are not enough to pass the message that need to be passed and to attract potential buyers. There are some other instances where the statements that are used in the advert just conflicts or rather passes the worst message than expected by the owner of the advert. This regards to the way in which a certain gender is presented in the advert.  (Wortham, 2009)

There is an advert that recently appeared on a page in the New York Times magazine. The advert was aimed at marketing the new Dell product of laptop known as the Inspiron Mini 10 Notebook. This is one of the newest brands of laptop that was introduced in to the market by Dell Company which appeared in the print media and also in the dell website. The advert was directed towards all the women and was given the name Della. (Wortham, 2009)

Initially , the site had originally featured some technical tips which were finding recipe, recommending calorie counting and watching cooking videos as some of the ways of women to get the best out of their laptop. However, the main aim of the advert was to make women desire to own a laptop but the end returns were not the same. It may be said that the approach that his advert used caused more harm than good.

In the world that we are living today, women are has started fighting for equality and therefore it would be obvious that such type of an advert would result to a lot of dispute. The reason is that it portrayed women as people who are technologically behind. It portrayed them as people who do not have any other use for a computer other than thinking of the domestic chores that they are involved in.

With the current development in the field of technology, there are a lot of other things that can be done with a laptop and it is certain that learning how to cook or getting tips on how to loose weight is none of them. This advert portrayed the women athlete and the entire gender as one which does not have any use of the new technology. The advert portrayed women as people who do not know what is actually happening in the technological world. This is very ridiculous owing to the fact that in the world today, women are turning to be very successful and they have equal rights and equal know-how as their male counterpart.

Other than portraying women as dump, the advert also portrays them as people who are ambitionless people who never understand the need to use the new and advancing technology to their benefits. It demonstrates women as people who will waste opportunities when they have them doing things that they would have done earlier. It is an opportunity for the women to have the latest model of laptop in the market and at the same time, it is disgusting to find them using this new and precious technology for their domestic purposes. This is a clear demonstration of who uncivilized these women may be.

This advert had put more emphasis on computer accessories, colors, and dieting tips. In addition, it had included a short video especially the advert that was on the website concerning the vintage shopping and all these were considered condescending to a women consumer. However, there was too much emphasis on the wrong issues which concerned how the product will related to the woman and at the same time, left out the most important factor to the company such as the pricing of the product and the other product specification as they were buried deep into the advert. (Wortham, 2009)

This advert can therefore be said to be gender stereotypical and on top of that, it used the wrong dimension to pass the message across. The only people that are described in the advert are the housewives. It becomes very sarcastic to consider that a housewife will need a laptop. This advert therefore portrays a very back picture of the women athlete and all the women in general. It is a clear indication that women never understand the use of computers as the only thing that they can do with them is to learn how to cook. (Wortham, 2009)

The advert would have targeted the career woman as these are the ones who would need the laptop. It would have demonstrated some functions and the success that is associated with the laptop when a career woman uses it. This way, it would have demonstrated a very positive picture to the women and at the same time, encourage them to buy the machine. However, with the current advert, there is a chance of a potential buyer viewing it from the negative perspective and this may make it difficult to sell.

From an aerial view, societies all around the world are trying to overcome the gap between the status of women and men in all walks of life. Their activities are focused on removing the inequalities, eliminating discrimination and giving every male and female equal importance, equal representation and a level playing field to compete with each other in every way. Same is the case with sports today women are very much keen to not only support the women athletic and sporting activities but also they also love to support women playing and contributing to the same events that were previously designed only for men. However when observed on a television show and researched by reviewing different magazines, it was found out that women are not getting the importance that they actually deserve. They win the same laurels for their countries and societies but still the major focus and attention remains only with the men. Therefore in the following paper, we will see where women are not given representation, why they are not given representation and what else is being done wrong.

The Electronic Media
As far as the electronic media is concerned, it was observed by watching a program on ESPN related to football that even girls are now hosting and anchoring shows that are related to mens football leagues. Although this was not the case in neither cricket nor football that women would comment and talk about the performance of men, however it is appreciated to watch them on sports channels today. Yet, the question lies, where are the real women on the channel being interviewed about their performance in a certain tournament. Yes it is accepted that the channels do broadcast women tournaments as well, although only the major ones such as champions league or world cups, but still the frequency of women athletes coming up on air or in the studio and being interviewed is almost negligible. They are either interviewed on the spot at the tennis court or otherwise. Moreover, there is probably one sport where women are given importance and that is tennis. Otherwise, women around the world are competing with their counter parts in almost all sporting events but they are not given the importance that they deserve. For example, when two teams compete in a cricket match, cricket stars or called in the studios to be interviewed, why is it not the case with women Are they less important Are they only good for selling female and motherly products No, it is the perception that the media has created in the minds of the consumers.

The Print Media
Apart from the importance and representation that females receive on the electronic media, another problem that is related to their promotion is the way they are portrayed. Going through a couple of sports magazines in the library and maintaining focus on the men and women advertisements, a huge difference was observed. Whenever we see Roger Fedrer, Tiger woods or any other male star on a print ad, all of the times they are either in their uniforms or showing in action (Holste, 2000). However, the irony is that when we look at ads with women stars, they are mostly out of action, out of uniforms and most frequently out of clothes even. These magazines and advertisements are mostly targeted towards women. Like men show action and skill, these women are actually forced to show the hyper sexuality with an added advantage of their skill to play the game which is hardly shown in the ad An example of such ad was a US soccer athlete showing up in a gears ad and not wearing any clothes except holding two soccer balls close to her. Now what does it has to do with the gear or the skill and talent that the women posses. Is it another way to brand super models from the women sports industry  The problem is that all these advertisements in these ads should have shown how powerful these women with respect to the skills are they posses and the achievements that they have gathered. However, this is actually not the case and is also not augmenting the argument of women empowerment. Rather these advertisements are showing these role model women to be so non-threatening, soft, weak and most of all extremely sexual.

Furthermore, apart from pictures, the written texts are even not coherent with what the women are actually capable of and how they can serve as a role model for their next generation. An example of such an ad was on a peoples magazines cover which showed a picture of Olympic figure skaters which had nothing to do or show which sport they belonged to as they were not in their action or uniforms, but it only said ice beauties (Holste, 2000).

Conclusion
The idea here is not to criticize on advertising with these women and giving them the tough and rough importance on television. However, the point that should be noted is that the essence of these role models lies in the profession they work for. The essence is in their skill and the message that they want to send out to other women who want to be like them. Women want to look at them as best of them in the sporting arena and not as best amongst them as models with respect to hyper sexuality. It is a fact that yes those who follow the sport also associate the ambiguous pictures and representation, but the fact is that this way the importance of women participating in the sports is only limited to the live coverage of the match and the rest is just modeling in its true sense.

Correlation is a means of measuring the degree of relationship between two or more variables. The variables can be paired if one of the variables is coupled to the other. The variables are said to have a relationship if one value influence the other in a certain way. This relationship can either be strong, weak or not there. A linear relationship exists for variables that are strongly related when the variables are plotted against each other in a graph while those that are least related show graphs with points scattered inside the graphs with differing shapes. The variables of height and physical strength are not correlated because when measuring height and physical strength of a group of people, it is impossible to determine the correlation because one cannot pair a specific height to its corresponding weight. The same case applies to weight since it is not possible to assign a specific weight for a particular physical strength. (Gla.ac.uk, n.d)

Malina and his colleagues (n.d.) reports that although their may be some low correlation between these variables in children, in adults there is no correlation. He also reports that the relationship between body size and physical strength is mostly influenced by age in adults eg.taller and heavier individuals appear to be stronger but this is not always the case. Using a method called partial correction, it is possible to determine the relationship between height, and physical strength when weight and age are controlled. The results of this test show that only age is correlated to performance even when the weight and height are controlled. The results of the test also prove the same for weight when the height and the age were controlled. They also points out that many studies point towards age influencing the physical strength of children but in adults it is not the case as there are a lot of differences in the rate of maturation biologically during adolescent stage impacts much on the physical strength (Malina, Claude  Bar-or, 18)

One interesting thing about the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics is how, to this day and age, women are still regarded as second-class citizens and are often times objectified. It is sad as this still happens even in the most progressive and liberal countries. It is a relative fact that sports greatly involves and, to a certain extent, promotes the marginalization of genders (Lecture Notes, 2010). That is why we have the mens and womens events and both genders cannot compete against each other in big sporting events like the Olympics, or in any sport in general. What raised eyebrows were the commentators calling the adult female athletes girls rather than women. I believe the commentators should have practiced a bit of professional courtesy towards the athletes and not tag them as if they were toddlers playing in the school yard. After all, these are professional athletes who have worked and trained hard to be in the world stage. They deserve all the respect and better treatment from their peers. Media personnel should realize that they bear responsibility of the thoughts, ideas, and words broadcasted in the airwaves.

Moreover, news came out about a couple of competing female skaters featured in a swimsuit magazine. According to an online article by Alison Korn (2010), The Olympics are the one time when female athletes get comparable attention to their male counterparts and yet, too much of it focuses on hotness.  To the unsuspecting mind, this might just be a harmless marketing ploy to attract attention and generate more ticket sales and sponsorships, considering that the Winter Games receive less fanfare and coverage compared to the Summer Games. But what bothers me is the ready action of corporate media to banner skimpily dressed athletes to promote the games.  I am sure men athletes had their share of the promotional chores but I am quite sure it was far less provocative or exploitative compared to the womens.

In an important platform like the Olympics, the focus should not only be on competition and winning. The world as it is today is divided and theres no better way to bridge social and cultural gaps than all the people involved treating each other with dignity, respect, and equality.

Physical fitness is one of the most important asset of an individual. Its the physical strength which allows us to keep our daily activities.  A healthy body system anchors ones vigor in order to perform physcial tasks in a normal manner or in a maximum enegry when needed. Having a resistance to fight stress and shield ourselves from any illness is a must quality in order to have a healthy and fruitful living.

This describes the individual strength of Client 1, Ms. Becky, who is 16 years old.  According to the result of her personal fitness questionnaire, her current condition is free of any sickness  such has heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, asthma and cancer.  Also, she is not experiencing any depression.  Her cholesterol is  normal.  When it comes to physiological status, her muscles and joints are not experiencing any ill condiiton.  Her breathing is normal. At the same time, shes not experiencing any headaches nor migraine. Lastly, Becky is free of any kind of allergy.  And is curently not taking any medications.

Becky has a healthy weight which is 54 kg and proportions  her height which is 1.57 m. Her diet is normal. She is not engaging herself in any excessive diet, hence her weight is ideal to her age and body frame. She has a normal body mass index as indicated in her weight and height chart.

Her heart rate is normal which is  60 bpm, hence there is no palpitations or irregular beatings. This strength shows that she has the athletic vigor. Becky, also, has an ideal range of  blood pressure which is 11762 mmHG which proves of her normal cholesterol.

Unfortunately, her lung function for  peak flow meter is below average by 43.3 Lmin.
On the other hand, she has a normal lung function for microspirometer. When it comes to family history, there is no indication of any conditons such as cancer, hypertension, heart disease except for her fathers diabetes.

Based on her current lifestyle test result, Becky describes her overall health and fitness as excellent.  However, she has a limited daily water intake.  She is not engaged in drinking any alcohol, but admits that she used to smoke and eventully quitted. Becky has considered netball as her physical exercise which is two hours a day at, four times a week which started in 2005.

Based on the findings formulated from the questionnaire and monitoring test, the major recommendation for her  health is to maintain her current lifestyle in order to become more healthy. It is also suggested that she keep herself to become more health conscious and be aware of her food intake. It is right to eat a variety grains especially those whole grains foods, fruits and vegetables.  These should be the basis for her healthy eating.  And Becky should also enjoy meals that have rice, pasta, tortillas, or whole grain bread. And should be accompanied by plenty of fruits and vegetabls and a moderate amount of low-fat food from the milk group and the  meat and beans group regularly.

Since  health and lifestyle enhancement can ensure good physical and mental health, this leads to a disease-free and more energetic lifestyle. Eventhough she is still young and full of vigor, to maitain her current status, health enhancement is a must for her. Maintaining, a healthy and regular diet, deeper religious growth and exercise can cause great transformations, both to the mind and body.

For Becky, she should bear in mind that health is not permanent, it needs enhancemetn in order to be healthy all throughout.  Being healthy at young age is not an assurance that she can be healthy for the rest of her life.  She should take extra precautions of the many aspects affecting ones health.  Physical aspect of an individual is very vital in order to have a successful life.  It is just right to consult a physician regularly even though symptoms may not be visible  for the person to take a relevant action.  Practicing a healthy lifestyle gives person a reason to live life to the fullest.

It is just essential for Becky to have optimistic feelings about herself. Physical fitness should be a major goal for an individual to be physically, mentally and emorionally fit.  She has to become positive enough to be more careful of herself and the things surrounding her physical vigor.

Goals in life can be successfully attained only if the major aspect is resolved.  No one can be physically fit to perform jobs unless he or she answers the call or physicall fitness.  Health is essential to ones living. Its just right to treat ourselves with much caring and kindness by obtaining a good health throughout aging.

P1 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
Confine your report solely to the points specified below, paying close attention to the length limits. Marks are also given against each question (total marks 80). For some questions, you will need to consult textbooks or other reference sources. The report should be handed in, at the Undergraduate Office (TM1-85), within ONE week of the date on which the practical is done. The report must represent your own work, and must not be written collaboratively. You must also not copy material from the internet, textbooks or elsewhere. An electronic version of this form is available on Weblearn.

NAMEID NUMBERGROUPDATE OF PRACTICAL
1. Spirometry
(i) Recording of height and age
The following formulae predict, approximately, two specific lung volumes

FORCED VITAL CAPACITY (FVC). This is defined as the maximum volume of gas that can be expelled from the lungs by forceful effort, following a maximal inspiration.
FVC (L)  0.064Hheight  - 0.031Hage - 5.33 (MEN)
 0.052Hheight  - 0.018Hage - 4.36 (WOMEN)
In both these and the subsequent formulae, height must be expressed in cm, and age in years.

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC). This is the total amount of gas contained in the lung at the end of a maximal inspiration.
TLC (L) 0.094Hheight - 0.015Hage - 9.17 (MEN)
 0.079Hheight - 0.008Hage - 7.49 (WOMEN)

Questions
Give the gender, age and height of your subject. Calculate FVC and TLC for your subject using the above formulae, remembering to include units. Show your calculations (6 lines maximum 5 marks).
Female, age19, hight1,59cm.FVC  (0.052)(159cm)-(0.018)(19)-4.36           8.27cm-0.342-4.36           3.57 LTLC   (0.079159)-(0.00819)-7.49           12.56  0.152  7.49  4.77 L

The formulae use data for age and height. Why, in terms of physiology, do you think these two variables may be used to predict lung volume (5 lines maximum 5 marks)

In term of physiology, these two variables are used to predict lung volume because age and height are  relatively constant, meaning as we age or get taller the numbers are relatively small than they were a year ago.  In addition, as we age our lungs become less elastic therefore we have less capacity in our lungs to inhale and exhale air. As for the height factor, the bigger someone is the more lung capacity they have and vice versa  when it comes to a person smaller in stature.

Why is FVC always less than TLC Why is this physiologically essential (Hint your answer should refer to the Residual Volume) (5 lines maximum 5 marks)

FVC is always less the TLC because when a person forcibly exhales say during exercise, the left over air in the lungs is the residual volume. The residual volume is essential because the remaining air in our lungs are used to oxygenate the rest of our body. Without our air reserves the body will be depleted of oxygen, which in turn destroy tissues in our muscles and brain.

(ii) Microspirometers
Complete the following Table with the data obtained in the practical. (5 marks)
UnitsBreath 1Breath 2Breath 3AverageFEV1L3.263.173.233.22 LFVCL3.543.453.543.51 LFER0.920.910.91PEFL441445435440 Ls

Why is FER is always less than 100 in healthy subjects  Giving the references you used at the end of this report, state what range of FER values is considered normal. (5 lines maximum 5 marks)
FER is always less than 100 in healthy persons because a healthy person often exerts greater force on their lungs to provide their muscles with oxygen. The normal range for FER are values is between 75-80.

Why is FER often used, in preference to FEV1 or PEF, when comparing different subjects  (5 lines maximum 5 marks)
FER is often preferred than FEV1 or PEF because FER has a wider, more consistent range and its also a better indication of airflow limitation. Whereas, with the other two, numbers could be askew depending on the force exerted by the subject when breathing during the test.

Compare the estimates of FVC you made by (i) calculation from height and age (ii) using the microspirometer. Suggest possible causes for any differences found. (5 lines maximum 5 marks)
The calculation for the FVC from the formula and microspirometer werent that much different. Some possible causes could have been the amount of air being exhaled into the device. In addition, the force with  which the air was being blown could have skewed the numbers a little bit. In addition, with microspirometercalculation individuals must take into account outside forces such as room air and any slight movements made by the individual during testing.

Recalculate your average PEF as L s-1. Is this figure different from that for FEV1  One would normally expect PEF (expressed as L s-1) to be higher than FEV1 - why (5 lines maximum 5 marks)


2. Collection and analysis of expired air

Complete the Table provided below, as indicated. Take note of the units specified for each calculation.
ROWS 1-3. Enter your recorded data here
ROW 4. Minute Volume is the volume of air exhaled per minute. Calculate using the data in row 1.
ROW 5. Tidal Volume is the average volume of each breath. Calculate using data already entered.
ROW 6. Calculate the rate of expiration of oxygen using the data in rows 3 and 4.
ROW 7. Calculate assuming that (i) the concentration of oxygen in room air is 20.9 and (ii) the minute volume of air inhaled is equal to the minute volume exhaled.
ROW 8. Calculate using the data in rows 6 and 7.
ROW 9. Calculate by multiplying the data in row 8 with the correction factor supplied
ROW 10. Calculate using the fact that oxygen consumption (expressed under STPD conditions) is proportional to energy expenditure 1 L of oxygen consumed is approximately equivalent to an energy expenditure of 20 KJ. (10 marks)

RowVariableFigure1Total volume of expired air (L)15.12Number of breaths in one minute (ventilation rate)143Oxygen concentration in expired air () 17.64Exhaled minute volume ATPS (L min-1)0.252 L5Tidal volume ATPS (L)1.09 L 6Oxygen exhalation rate ATPS (ml min-1)14.3 mLmin 7Oxygen inhalation rate ATPS (ml min-1)12.1 mLmin 8Oxygen consumption ATPS (ml min-1) 1.18 mLmin9Oxygen consumption STPD (ml min-1) 10Energy expenditure (J min-1)NOTE In the above table, volume data has been expressed using the terms ATPS and STPD. ATPS means the gas volume measured under actual laboratory conditions of temperature, pressure and humidity these may vary from day to day. STPD conditions on the other hand are standardised, and it is necessary to convert ATPS volumes to STPD before carrying out the calculation for energy expenditure in the above table.

How does your value for resting energy expenditure compare with normal values By how much might energy expenditure increase under conditions of maximum exercise. Give references for your sources, at the end of this report. (5 lines maximum 5 marks)

The range for normal REE values start from 1512J-3112J.  Energy expenditure increases greatly when a Person exercises at maximum capacity. The amount it takes to inhale and exhale one breath takes enough Energy  imagine how much energy it takes for a person to get through a gruelling workout.
     
 In order to calculate energy expenditure, we assumed that oxygen consumption is proportional to energy expenditure. Explain why this is normally true, and identify when, in a healthy individual, it might not be correct. (5 lines maximum 5 marks)

Normally the amount of oxygen a person consumes is the same amount of energy heshe expends because Breathing normally requires so little energy that the energy used is the same. On the hand, a healthy individualMay expend less energy when breathing because the body has become accustomed to receiving less oxygen Therefore when a healthy person breathes the pressure the exert is far less than that of say an overweight Person because their bodies have more oxygen reserve because they dont breathe in and out as much.

Assuming that each g of ATP used in the body requires 60J to synthesise, how much ATP is your subject using (a) each minute during the measurement (b) each day, assuming that average energy expenditure remains the same as that which you measured Show your calculations and comment on the figures obtained in relation to the synthesis and breakdown of ATP. (10 lines maximum 5 marks)

A. 14 breathsmin  60 secs.  840J  B. 14 breaths min  60 min.  16 hrs.  13, 440 J The synthesis and breaking down of ATP requires a lot of energy and these figures are staggering considering This how much energy we need each day just to keep breathing.

The assumption used to complete Row 7 of the Table (that minute volume of inhaled air  minute volume of exhaled air) is not quite correct. Three factors contribute to this  what are they (7 lines maximum 10 marks)