Sport

For ten years now hockey fans in the cities of Quebec and Winnipeg have not had chance to watch a hockey match involving a hockey team from either of the cities. However, now the same fans have a reason to smile since soon they will enjoy the excitement they bused to ten years ago. This good news for the city fans culminates from the decision by the National hockey league plan to bring back hockey franchise to the two cities. The move is expected to revive hockey excitement and enthusiasm as it were before hockey franchises left the two cities. 
   
However, all of this good news might not be realized any time sooner because the same problem which led the teams to move elsewhere still continue to hunt the respective cities. In Quebec City despite large passionate fan base, the city lacks a hockey arena ten years after the teams left due to the same problems. The author reveals that one of the main reasons why the owner of Quebec Nordiques sold the team was after the city and the province official to guarantee construction of public arena for the team. And from the look of thing, there are no signs of constructing any arena in Quebec City any time soon as there is no suggestion by the city or the province to spend hundred millions of Canadian dollars to do so. This is so because the costs of arena has shot up from a low of  70 million in 1970s to more than  I billion today and the fact that if constructed more than 80 per cent of revenue generated in the arena would go to the team owner.
   
Secondly, establishing a new team in Quebec City might not be easy because of existence of Montreal Canadiens which is a provincial team. The big question is whether a new team in the city will be able to compete with the Montreal Canadiens bearing in mind that one, many fans from the city had moved to support team in Montreal over the period when the city had no hockey business going on. And secondly no cable TV is willing to sponsor a non-provincial team.  
   
One major problem that curtails the City of Winnipeg ambitions to bring back a hockey team in the area is its small population size. Despite much interest from Winnipeg residents and availability of stadium the number is too small to make any meaningful contribution to supporting the local team. Due to the small population size, cable TV market is limited which limits corporate sponsorship from the cable TV.
   
In addition lack of finance still remains a negative factor against the idea of bringing the teams back. Though with large fan base, due to harsh reality very few people are willing reach into their pocket and pony small part of their fortune to attend a game. The reason being that, tickets price have skyrocket over the last ten years. Further the idea to reintroduce hockey team is curtailed by the increased salaries for hockey player that many team might not afford due to the fact that majority of the locals are not willing to coup money to buy match tickets which is the main source of revenues to the teams. Again revenue generated is in term of Canadian dollar while the players are paid in Loonies which means more Canadian dollars will be needed in order to pay players using the strong US dollar. 

In any sports-related event, it is important that one takes care not to incur an injury. However, this is not possible all the time because this is an unavoidable part of all sports. A personal safety training, even if well-monitored is still not the best move for an injured athlete. The athlete needs to deal with the emotional turmoil that accompanies any injury that is not at all expected. It is inevitable that an athlete will feel worthless and depressed because he will not be able to play for a long time. But it is always important to exercise caution the next time around.

Student-athletes are viewed as leaders and role models in schools or universities. They are respected and emulated by other students considering that to be labeled as a student-athlete requires them to meet rigorous set of qualifications and standards. They are respected and emulated for their character, steadfast discipline academically, in their chosen field of sports as well as in their personal lives whether off and on campus. That is why when they cannot train because of an injury, they can be frustrated with their condition. When they are off campus, they represent their schools in events that they attend to or participate in. Considering the great responsibilities they assume as student-athletes, they are expected to meet the standards being asked of them to be worthy of such respect and emulation from others, be they fellow students, the faculty members, the school administrators and even the public. But if they are wise enough, they will not ignore the warnings that their own physical body manifests.

There is a need to gather all the concerned persons to support an injured athlete. There are personal perspectives and suggestions that are important to consider. When the proper precautions are not heeded, then it is more likely that there will be a second injury. Strengthconditioning coaches have an important role in situations like these so that the rehab of these individuals will be hastened especially on the injured area. When the training procedures are instituted, they can include rudimentary activities as body weight exercises, manual resistancemassage applications, and hydra-training in a pool or a therapy pool that has a resistance mechanism.

Personal safety training must not be undertaken by injured athletes because that can spell further injury. For instance, in a knee injury, runners must heed their coaches when they advice that it is important to have a much-needed rest before they strain themselves again. The individual must take time off to recover that injured part in order to achieve an overall fitness level. There is a need for a differential training which means that he has to work out the healthy muscles and the different parts of the body while letting the injured part heal. This will make him ready to go back to his regular activity and pick up before the injury occurred. It is important to note that athletes are both physically and mentally driven by results. Progression is a critical ingredient in any kind of training, but it is also a vital constituent in rehab design. More than this, tracking and comparing the initial post-injury strength level with the new gains gives information on the healing process so that a person can make wise decisions on the progress of frequency, duration, and intensity of the workloads. By and large, it is important to remember that sports accidents are common and can be reduced by exercising enough care and precaution. But when injuries to individuals occur, there is a need for a long period of rehab that will prevent any more injuries. There is also a need to acquire more knowledge on the mechanisms of injury according to technical skill.

The research attempts to focus on the benefits of Sport events for people. In this regard, the study focuses on the investigation of sports as an activity that promotes social inclusion.The purpose of this study is to explore athletes perceptions regarding social exclusion and inclusion among the sports that they play and the perceived benefits of social inclusion among athletes.  This study is twofold.  An earlier qualitative interview was conducted to explore the athletes perception regarding social exclusion, inclusion and its benefits.  The results of the interview were utilized in the formulation of a questionnaire for use as an instrument for gathering quantitative data. The results of this study shows that athletes are strongly convinced of the benefits of social inclusion in sports and that social exclusion still does exist. Inclusion, however, is also strongly encouraged and practised.

For human beings, the need for social inclusion is rudimentary. Maslows hierarchy of needs exemplifies this notion.  After man has satisfied his basic needs of physiologic, safety and security, he now desires to fulfil the next level of needs love and belongingness and self-esteem (Boeree, 2006). It is inherent in every human being to crave acceptance and belongingness. Social exclusion defies these needs and can be devastating (An introduction Bastian  Haslam, 2010 Levett-Jones  Lathlean, 2008).  Social exclusion can either be financial or poverty-related exclusion from the labour market or exclusion in the social sense, that is, rejection from certain social groups and stigmatization (An introduction Sommerville, 1998).  This research will focus on the last context of social exclusion exclusion in the social sense, and to include social inequality, stigma and discrimination.

Exclusion from citizenship in certain social groups, whether through inequality, stigma and discrimination, is more prevalent among the disadvantaged aggregate.  The poor, the mentally ill, people with disabilities, ex-prisoners and people with AIDSHIV are only a few of those who are at higher risk for stigmatization and social exclusion.  Social exclusion can have many detrimental effects.  Researches have shown that social exclusion and social isolation significantly impacts a persons psychosocial and prosocial behaviour (Twenge, Ciarocco, Baumeister, DeWall,  Bartels 2007), mental health in the form of depression and psychosis (Barnes, 2004, Bell, 1989), emotion such as with feelings of shame and avoidance (Karim, Chowdhury, Islam,  Weiss, 2007), and disruption in mental processes (Baumeister, Twenge, and Nuss, 2002).
   
Challenging social exclusion is not an easy task.  Several methodologies and measures have been employed to promote social inclusion. Twardzicki (2008) investigated the use of performing arts as a means of promoting social inclusion among people with mental health problems and found that it positively affected the subjects mood, confidence and their sense of inclusion.  On the other hand, voting was proposed as a means for achieving social inclusion among those with mental illness (Nash, 2002).
   
he role of sports as an agency for promoting social inclusion, celebrating diversity and promoting equality is a concept that is gaining in popularity.  Sports have been correlated with social inclusion as different individuals find numerous potential social growths out of it. There are a number of available literatures on incidences of social exclusion and policies that promote social inclusion among sports organizations.
In the school system, for example, promoting social justice among students with disabilities is implemented through placement of these students into the general physical education classes.  In such a way, these students are seen as a contributing member of the social group, promoting equality, forming meaningful relationships and enhancing self-esteem (Place  Hodge, 2001).   In the same manner, inclusion of sports enthusiasts and athletes characteristics in planning sport activities and events enables sports managers to conduct strategies that aim at the differences among sports enthusiasts and athletes who comprise potential target audiences. Effective determination of social needsdesires and belongingness context requires a sufficient number of audiences, resources to meet the needs of the segment, and the ability to reach these individuals.
   
However, there are only a few studies that specifically investigated the factors that drive sports in general to encourage social inclusion, and the relationship between sports and social inclusion. At the same time, there are also available body of knowledge on how sports also contribute to the exclusion of some disparaged section of the society.      In the article by Cortis (2009), the requirement of some sports to conform to social and cultural norms at times result to the emphasize inequality and exclusion, rather than promote inclusion, as in the case of women.  This is supported by Allender, Cowburn and Fosters systematic review of qualitative studies on the reasons and barriers to participating in sports among children and adults.  For teen-age girls, ill-fitting uniforms detract them from participating in sports activities.  At the same time, gender stereotyping creates a feeling among teen-age girls of being actively marginalized by boys, offering more boy-type activities, and restricting their participation and equipment use during sports activities (Allender et al).  Among adults, lack of self confidence, a perception of a gym culture and a sense of being socially disadvantaged prevented them from participating in sports (Allender et al).
   
It is easy to think that sports can encourage social inclusion among the stigmatized, marginalized and disparaged population.  Individuals can feel that they are contributing members of the group and be equals among the group members.  However there is also a body of literature that introduces the notion that sports can actually push social exclusion.  As such, this research is being undertaken to clarify this gap, and at the same time, outline the factors in sports that build social inclusion.
Aims and Objectives
The purpose of this study is threefold
(i)to describe the athletes perceptions and experiences on social inclusion and exclusion,
(ii) to describe the perceived benefits of social inclusion among athletes, and
(iii) to describe the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion.
Research Questions
    Specifically, this research aims to answer the following questions
    a. What are the demographic characteristics of the population
    b. What are the athletes perceptions on social inclusion and exclusion
    d. What are the perceived benefits of social inclusion among athletes
    e. What are the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion

Significance of the Study
Politically, it has been considered that sports play a critical role in combating or fighting social exclusion. This research is significant in that it contributes to the good of the society.  First, it offers information to the concerned individuals and organizations regarding the factors that encourage engagement in sports activities and the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion. Social inclusion through sports management permits individuals, and sports organizations to enhance programs and policies in order to integrate measures of social inclusion into sports activities.  This study is also significant so as to know how these sports activities would affect the individuals regarding their status in the society or the community.  Lastly, this research is significant in contributing to the body of literature that illustrate the significance of sports activities as a measure for promoting or encouraging social inclusion. 

In terms of sports development, it is believed that the study of the experience of the people in sports activities provide insights about how sport events and sports development projects were provisioned to explore the social forces that governs the manners that encoded meanings used for identity construction by the participants.  This study can therefore permit or motivate the society to determine how the participants of sport events in the sport development projects have been utilised as a context in making investments.

Sports and social exclusion
Racism
While involvement in sports is generally deemed as an avenue for promoting social inclusion, it is not infallible and is oftentimes subject to discriminatory activities that support social exclusion.  This is exhibited in a number of related cases. One of which was the case of John du Pont, who has who has openly exhibited racial and ethnic discrimination by only supporting the careers of famous white wrestlers but does not express the same intent for black participants (The Philadelphia tribune, 1997). His actions have caused the black wrestlers to lose their opportunity and right to take part in the 1996 Olympics and ultimately resulted to these particular wrestlers to sue du Pont. (The Philadelphia Tribune, 1997).
   
Football, being a highly competitive sports event, draws a lot of discriminatory incidences due to the nature of fanaticism it receives from its supporters. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is no less susceptible to these incidences. As a sports activity, football games should serve as a bridge between different nations and be used as a positive influence. FIFA believes that discrimination and racism has nothing to do with football, does not tolerate any discriminatory acts and has clear sanctions for such behaviour.  In spite of all this, it appears that cases as such have remained rampant. In 2004, an issue related social exclusion was encountered by FIFA when Spanish fans apparently threw unpleasant monkey chants directed towards the black players of the British team during the under-21 football game between England and Spain (FIFA, 2004). During the same year, a similar incident occurred between the fans of Bastia and St. Etienne when fans of the latter team attacked the coloured players of Bastia (Football, 2004). Still, a month before the incident between England and Spain, racists abuse was also observed in a Champions League match between the English club and the Panathinaikos (Football, 2004).
   
Similar to the issues surrounding racism in the football league, discrimination and exclusion in cricket is mostly spectator initiated, either towards the minority (black and Pakistani) players or to their minority supporters (Malcolm, 2002).
   
Even in the event of golf, where the main sportsman is African American in the person of Tiger Woods, still experience prejudice and contribute to social exclusion of the marginalized section of the population.  The case of Shoal Creek has sparked controversy in 1990 because of its resolve to maintain an all-white membership (Daddario Wigley, 2006).  Ten years after opening its doors to black members, in 2000, Shoal Creek has a total of one honorary black member, and one full-paying member (Reeves, 2000).
   
In British professional soccer, on the other hand, the issue of racism is directed towards the fact that while there is a satisfying number of black players in the league, there is, so far, only one black manager and until 2008, and that the appointment of Herman Ouseley in 2008 to the Football Association council, made him the first and only member of the 116-member council (Jacques, 2009).  Similarly, Jeremy Lin, a point guard for the Harvard University Basketball team, has fallen into the racial stereotypical pit.   Despite notable achievements in the hard-court i.e. leading his high school team to a state title and being Harvards top scorer, scholarship offers were not forthcoming (On Diverseeducation, 2009).

Gender inequality
The world of sport bore witness to the marginalization of women for a long time.  Even as the quest for gender equalization has gained footing during the last two decades, it is still a constant struggle as total equality is still far from being achieved.  Major positions in sport organizations, for example, are still mostly held by males (Shaw  Frisby, 2006).  This, according to Hoeber and Frisby (2001) is due to the fact that sport management has been primarily concerned with producing the winning team or athlete and generating revenue that gender equality most often takes the backseat. At the same time, the more popular sports like baseball and football are still very much male dominated.  Of course, the increasing popularity of female basketball and even boxing cannot be underrated.
   
The case of the Augusta National Golf Club has gained much attention because it maintains an exclusively male membership.  There is much debate on whether the Augusta National Golf Club should take down its fences and admit female members.  Martha Burk and the National Council of Womens Organizations cried foul over this policy, arguing that it denies women of valuable opportunities, both cultural and social (Sheeley, 2002 Daddario . Wigley, 2006).  On the other hand, the Independent Womens Forum (IWF), expressed respect for this right of Augusta National Golf Club as a privately operated golf club (IWF, 2002).  Wimbledon in 2006, determined that female tennis players are worthy of lesser compensation than males for the reason being that male tennis matches tend to be longer than that of females (Wimbledon, 2006).
   
On a parallel circumstance, males also experience exclusion from all-female sports such as synchronized swimming (Synchronized, 2006).
Other discrimination issues
   
There are other issues of discrimination surrounding sport and other athletic activities.  Such is the case of weight discrimination in the fitness industry.  Weight stereotyping and stigma transcends into the fitness industry by through similar reasoning as with issues of hiring, promotability and compensation in other industries (Sartorre and Cunningham, 2007).  In a series of experiments conducted by Sartorre and Cunningham (2007), qualified overweight people were stereotyped as lazy and less fit for a fitness position were perceived as less desirable, and were less likely to receive hiring recommendation.
Anti-discriminatory and social inclusion policies
   
The anti-discriminatory facet is also an essential factor covered by the social inclusion context. In the sports arena, a number of factors had been developed in order to ensure that policies in sports events are anti-discriminatory and promote social inclusion. For instance, the Olympic Charter (International Olympic Committee (IOC)) contains the Fundamental Principles of Olympism.   In this regulation, sport is considered as a human right, therefore, discriminatory practices and doings are prohibited. 
   
In the same manner, other institutions also give emphasis on anti-discrimination and social inclusion in their sport events and activities. For instance, The UNESCO Sports Charter of Physical Education and Sport (2007) also uphold the same principles. This provision prohibits advocates social inclusion by according each individual full opportunity to access sports activities and physical education, without discrimination to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other consideration (UNESCO, 2007  2-3).
   
The European Sport for All Charter is yet another sport agency forbids discriminatory acts and promotes access to sports facilities and activities without prejudice to an individuals colour, race, religion, sex, language, social origin, political opinion, minority group or property (Burchfield, 2006). This charter further extends the social inclusion policy by according the opportunity to engage in sports to the gifted vis-a-vis the disadvantaged or disabled individuals or groups in an effective manner (Council of Europe, 1992). The same principle is contained in the Sports Convention against Apartheid in Sports, social inclusion is encouraged and discrimination based on a persons political affiliation, religion or race is prohibited. This is embodied within the Olympic Charter (Burchfield, 2006).
   
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), while not speaking of sports in a particular sense, endorses the rights for education and participation on cultural life (Burchfield, 2006). In other sports contexts, the provision is directed to particular or specific groups. Therefore, it can be construed as inclusive of equal access and participation in sport activities through the three aspects mentioned.  The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Anti-Discrimination against Female athletes (CEDAW), on the other hand, is clearly directed towards female athletes and sports participants. In one study of this social inclusion aspect, it has been stressed that female athletes should be given equal rights and opportunities as men, specifically in taking part on sports events and physical education. Moreover, female athletes have the right to partake in any recreational activity and other aspects of cultural life like men or male counterparts (Burchfield, 2006).
   
FIFA, on the other hand, had shown a certain level of involvement to discriminatory incidents over the past years by means of enforcing its code of ethics. Some of these cases included the racial and physical abuse to Arsenals Thierry Henry where PSV Eindhoven gave a 14,000 pound fine in 2002, the racists behaviour of the fans cost Slovakian FA 27,000 pounds for racists behaviour during a World Cup qualifier game racist chants directed at British black players and the burning of the English flag led to an 11,000 pound fine for the Macedonian FA and in 2004, Hungarys Ferencravos fined 25,000 pounds for the monkey chants directed to Marck McCammon and Paul Ifill of Millwall (Harris  Newman, 2004).

Social Inclusion
Sports and social inclusion
The term social inclusion is primarily utilized to determine how individual can be perceived to belong in a specific group, which may consider their age, gender, race, and even their sport activities.  The concept of social inclusion is viewed in diverse ways.  Some thoughts on social inclusion adhere to the notion or idea which may perceive to be natural and evident to those who are willing to accept it, but in reality this notion is only an invention or artefact of a certain society or culture. In this manner the proposition is that social inclusion are considered as the choice of human rather than the laws of nature of society, where humans create the social world through conceptualizations and interactions, attitudes, and acceptances (Uskali, 2002).  Some conceptions that characterize and describe the meaning of social inclusion include gender, class and race. Beyond these basic classifications, inequality, stigma and discrimination place certain population groups (women, disabled, race and colour, political and religious affiliations, addicts, etc) at a social disadvantage.

Social inclusion involves the creation and maintenance of a social bond between the individual and the society, as well as the individuals capability to exercise their choices and preferences (Buckmaster  Thomas, 2009).  According to Tuomela and Balzer (1999) collective acceptance is the key to the inclusion of many social entities and properties. The social context of desire, acceptance and belongingness, the creation of a bond between the participants and other stakeholders, and the ability to participate in sports events out of ones own choice and preference plays a vital role in the promotion of social inclusion through sports. 

Sports and inclusion of marginalized group
Through the use of the context of social desire and belongingness many sport activities and events producers are able to include efficiency and specialization into their operations. By designing certain programs that adheres to the needs of their participants and audience, sport activities and events can align their offerings with the specific needs of their included participants, resulting to better results (Moschis, 1994).
   
Several authors have noted the interrelation of sports and social inclusion. Specifically, mega sports events are said to be major contributors of social inclusion. 
   
Sports programs have the ability to supplement existing approaches to social disadvantage (Mynard, Howie,  Collister, 2009).  People with physical disabilities find that participating in sports activities reinstates their membership in the active and competitive group (Robertson, 2003).  While Walseth (2006), in her interview with 21 young Norwegian Muslim women, found that engaging in sports contribute to these womens sense of belonging, and gives them a sense of refuge.

Sports and inclusion of team members
The context of sports has been a vital aspect of global culture and society. It diverts language and culture barriers into universal eagerness and an avenue for belongingness (Tourism, 2009).  Sports seem to be an effective event for making people feel that they belong in the group due to the wide array of sport activities that they can participate in.  Social inclusion as an aspect of sports is based on the theoretical belief that every athlete has different attitudes, perceptions and purchasing behaviours. Hence, athletes with similar need and desires and preferences must be grouped together apart from other groups with other preferences. Furthermore, it is a well-accepted belief that sports activities are intended to promote not only sportsmanship, but also belongingness.

According to Shank (2002), individuals who participate in the sports activities consider themselves as individual that belongs to a specific group of people.  The people that surrounds them make them feel secured in a way that it encourages them to do their best to stay and be included in that particular social group.  Team-building and team involvement enhances the sense of welcome and inclusion that accompanies being a part of a team (Mynard, Howie,  Collister, 2009). 

Therefore, it is imperative that the world of sports be cognizant of the different individual characteristics of players and athletes, and ensure that each individual be given n opportunity to participate in any sport he desires.

For instance in order to make inclusion to athletes or their participants and spectators, sport events try to determine the desire of the people involve. For their part, they wish to define social desire as states that are analogous to those of hunger and thirst. These social need and desires have their origins in the social situation, as the term implies, rather than from within the individual. The needs can be satisfied by behaviours, and something paralleling deprivation is thought to take place. Need and desires, once stimulated (i.e., not satisfied), direct behaviour, leading to need satisfaction. In other words, these behaviours can be considered to be motivated. When these needs have been identified, sport activities and events try to meet these need and desires and after which they try to include their participants based on their need and desires.

Other initiatives to engender social inclusion are through increasing the access of women to public, commercial and community sport facilities and events (Cortis, 2009) and to increase availability of sport events for a diversified population, including the marginalized and those with disability (Harada  Siperstein, 2009).  The NCAA , for instance , have sourced the expertise of a female to head its committee on diversity and inclusion.

Methodology 
This section will present the basic strategies that the researcher have employed in order to develop evidence that is accurate and interpretable.  The research design incorporates some of the most significant decisions of the researcher in that it entails the choice of which design best fits the study purpose and answer the research questions. 
Research Design
   
This study used a combination qualitative and quantitative research design, both of which have their own normal and standard approaches and techniques to follow. 
   
The qualitative approach was utilized as a method for the pilot study to collect subjective data from the sample and is particularly advantageous in studying various features of a definite point where there are emphasis on the explanation of the sources and even the author.  For this research, the qualitative approach through participant interview was used to describe the samples perception of social exclusion and inclusion in relation to sport, as well as the perceived benefits of inclusion on the sample. The data collected were segregated into similar categories and used in the development of the instrument for empirical testing.

The quantitative approach utilized for this research is a descriptive design specifically to explore the perceptions of social inclusion and its benefits among athletes.  The advantage of using a quantitative approach is in the empirical testing of data, thereby ascertaining the validity and reliability of results.  While the interview results yielded subjective data, this design, in turn, yielded numerical and objective data.

Study Participants
The population under study are athletes from amateur and professional leagues in the region.  The pilot study was conducted through interviews with 10 selected collegiate basketball players.  For the main study, a total of 120 amateur and professional leagues were approached to be a part of the study. Their names and information were collected, ensuring confidentiality at all times.  Random sampling was used to ensure that a representative sample will be drawn.
Instruments
   
This research used a questionnaire to guide the interview for the qualitative data collection process.  The questionnaire contained six open-ended questions on the athletes perception of social exclusion and exclusion in relation to sport, and perceived benefits of inclusion on the sample (Appendix A)
   
For the quantitative data, a self-constructed item likert-type questionnaire was developed by the researcher based on the literature review and the results of the pilot study, including items on discrimination and social exclusion, benefits of social inclusion and determinants of social inclusion in sports (Appendix B).  The questionnaire is composed of four parts.  Part I, informed consent, contains the details of the study and the informed consent, and the profile of the participants.  This includes name, age, gender, and number of years as athlete. Part II-A contains questions regarding social exclusion.  Part II-B contains questions on social inclusion. Part III contains questions to determine the benefits of social inclusion in sport. This questionnaire was pilot-tested to 5 collegiate athletes to determine content and construct validity.  All items were rated as readable, understandable and free of ambiguous items.

Results and Discussion
Results
In this section, the demographic characteristics of the respondents have been tackled.
Table 1. Frequency and percentage breakdown Gender.
fMale6453.33Female5646.67Total 120100.00
Table 1 shows that 53 of the sample is female, while the remainder 47 are males.
Table 2. Frequency and percentage breakdown Age.
fBelow 185142.5018-204537.5021-301210.0031-401210.0041-5000.0050 and above00.00Total 120100.00
On age, it may be gleaned that 42 of the sample are below 18 years old 37 are within the 18-20 years old bracket and 21-30 and 31-40 years old categories each received 10. 
Table 3. Frequency and percentage breakdown Race.
fAmerican Indian  Alaskan Native1210.00Black  African American75.83Asian2621.67Hispanic or Latino   3226.67White4335.83Total 120100.00
On the frequency and percentage breakdown by race, the sample is predominantly White at 36. 27 are Hispanic  Lation 22 are Asian 10 are American IndianAlaskan and 6 are composed of Black  African Americans.

Table 4. Frequency and percentage breakdown Tenure.
fLess than 1 year1210.001-5 years 4638.336-10 years1310.8311-15 years3730.8316-20 years1210.0020 years00.00Total 120100.00
For the succeeding tables, the following scale has been used to interpret the means
1.0-1.49  Never
1.50  2.49  Rarely
2.50  3.49  Sometimes
3.50  4.49  Often
4.50  5.00  Very Often

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics Social Exclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation 1. Denied participation because of skin color race 2.871.232. Refused acceptance because of affiliation 3.101.313. Denied participation because of gender2.201.254. Denied participation because of weight3.261.285. Denied participation because of other discriminatory issues (pls. specify) ____________________ 3.091.236. Called names pertaining to race  3.041.257. Called names pertaining to gender 2.931.298. Called names pertaining to affiliation 4.090.869. Called names pertaining to weight 2.811.2410. Called names pertaining to other discriminatory issues (pls. specify) ____________________3.091.2711. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by team members3.091.2412. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by sport management (coach assistant coach, manager etc)2.981.1913. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by fans spectators3.091.3214. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by other individuals (pl. specify) ______________________-3.391.12

The following item on social exclusion was experienced often Called names pertaining to affiliation (X4.09, sd0.86). Next are the social exclusion items experienced sometimes Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by other individuals (pl. specify) (X3.39, sd1.12)  Denied participation because of weight (X3.26, sd1.28) Refused acceptance because of affiliation (X3.10, sd1.31) Denied participation because of other discriminatory issues (X3.09, sd1.23) Called names pertaining to other discriminatory issues (X3.09, sd1.27) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by team members (X3.09, sd1.24) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by fans spectators (X3.09, sd1.32) Called names pertaining to race  (X3.04, sd1.25) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by sport management (coach assistant coach, manager etc) (X2.98, sd1.19) Called names pertaining to gender (X2.93, sd1.29) and Denied participation because of skin color race  (X2.87, sd1.23). One item was experienced rarely Called names pertaining to weight (X2.81 sd1.24) Denied participation because of gender (X2.20, sd1.25).

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics Social Inclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation1. I always have a sense of belongingness in my team3.970.932. My team always makes me feel welcome3.970.933. My team listens to my opinions and suggestions3.800.834. My team considers my opinions suggestions when making a decision4.080.825. I am regarded as an equal in my team4.180.876. I feel secured when I am playing with my team4.021.027. I am satisfied with the way my team treats me.3.700.798. I do not feel discriminated by some members of my team3.931.079. I feel welcome in this team3.760.9610. I communicate well with my team4.130.8511. I have not felt threatened by the actions of some team members4.130.8512. I do not feel that some team members are threatened by me.3.870.87
All of the items on social inclusion were experienced often, as follows I am regarded as an equal in my team (X4.18, sd0.87) I have not felt threatened by the actions of some team members (X4.13, sd0.85) My team considers my opinions suggestions when making a decision (X4.08, sd0.82) I feel secured when I am playing with my team (X4.02, sd1.02) I always have a sense of belongingness in my team (X3.97, sd0.93) My team always makes me feel welcome (X3.97, sd0.93) I do not feel discriminated by some members of my team (X3.93, sd1.07) I do not feel that some team members are threatened by me (X3.87, sd0.87) My team listens to my opinions and suggestions (X3.80, sd0.83) My team listens to my opinions and suggestions (X3.80, sd0.83) I feel welcome in this team (X3.76, sd0.96) I am satisfied with the way my team treats me (X3.70, sd0.79)

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics Benefits of Social Inclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation1. I am confident with my actions4.360.672. I do not feel shy when voicing my opinions4.520.613. I always engage in conversation with my team and other people4.530.504. I feel content4.570.605. I rarely worry4.260.636. I am always motivated4.620.607. I am always in the mood to play4.090.798. I am always ready to participate in the game4.040.829. I rarely feel lazy.4.530.5910. I communicate with my team4.420.6811. I enjoy what Im doing4.150.8112. I do not feel forced to play the game4.360.6713. I am proud of my team4.200.7714.

I bond with my team outside of the game4.050.83
The following items were met with strong agreement I am always motivated (X4.62, sd0.60) I feel content (X4.57, sd0.60) I always engage in conversation with my team and other people (X4.53, sd0.50) I do not feel shy when voicing my opinions (X4.52, sd0.61) I am confident with my actions (X4.36, sd0.67) I rarely worry (X4.26, sd0.63) I am always in the mood to play (X4.09, sd0.79) I am always ready to participate in the game (X4.04, sd0.82) I rarely feel lazy (X4.53, sd0.59). On the other hand, the following were met with agreement I communicate with my team (X4.42, sd0.68) I enjoy what Im doing (X4.15, sd0.81) I do not feel forced to play the game (X4.36, sd0.67) I am proud of my team (X4.20, sd0.77) and I bond with my team outside of the game (X4.05, sd0.83).
Discussion
   
Social inclusion of sports viewers and enthusiasts is also another aspect that needs to be addressed. Inclusion as a marketing strategy refers to the practice of dividing the total market into several groups, like their field of specialization on sports, where the preferences of each athlete on sport activities and events context are all taken into account (Mynard et al, 2009 Moore, Petty, Palich  Longnecker, 2008). This strategy appears to be an effective tool primarily in addressing athletes and even spectators on football sports or the Olympics per se. This is mainly because athletes of this type are typically huge in size and highly diversified.  Accordingly, constructing athletes through the use social context of desire and belonging pertaining to sport activities and events efforts provided to a group of potential audience based on various characteristics. These characteristics may include demographic, geographic, lifestyle and behavioural data. Hence, athletes constructs are typically based on age, income, occupation, gender and behavioural aspects of the participants as viewed by the sport activities and events.  In such a way, sports viewers and enthusiasts as well as the athletes, are being constructed with their specific needs and desires including their needs to be a part of certain groups in the society.  

The results of the current study and the literature review clearly establishes, that even 21st century, social exclusion still occurs everyday, even in sport where individuals are supposed to be given the opportunity participate, be a contributing member of the team and to excel without prejudice. However, there appears to be a gap in the implementation of anti-discriminatory policies among the sport organizations.  One of which is the inadequate enforcement of the factors developed. As indicated by the authors of previously cited document, there had been a number of similar instances when FIFA had not actively involved itself to discriminatory incidents. This made the football organization appear too lenient for the responsibility. The factors may be developed, but the committee does not seem to show strength in implementing them. Moreover, violations are usually settled through the payment of fines, which football teams and nations can easily provide.
While sport regulating bodies try to battle social exclusion through anti-discriminatory policies, there are limited body of knowledge that outlines the initiatives and processes for which to encourage and generate social inclusion in sport.

Inclusion of sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups in sports is a potent sports management strategy for satisfying consumer preferences of sport activities and events objectives. Lifestyle analysis involves identifying sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups activities, interests, and opinions. Activities are classified as sports, work, entertainment, and hobbies. Interests include job, house, family, fashion, and food. Media selection can be geared to specific sports viewers and enthusiasts. Finally, sport activities and events management may be able to develop improved multidimensional perspectives of key target, to develop a more lifelike portrait or profile of customers, and to construct sports activities based on this portrait. The success of social inclusion of sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups can only be measured when identified groups of individuals can be reached by a marketing mix aimed at that segment.
   
People belong to a society in which ideology is structured and developed through different social factors and elements. Social inclusion in sport activities and events need to be emphasized because sport managers have a very complex accountability to athletes and enthusiasts alike because it is the only way that sports commissions will attract more athletes and support from fans and other stakeholders. There is a need for awareness of the factors that drive inclusion in this realm.
     
Sport activities and events used these social concepts in different ways. First, they use this to identify the needs and desires of the sports enthusiasts and athletes in order to group them or construct them into specific groups. Furthermore, sport activities and events used these social concepts in order to identify whether the identified groups are socially accepted and that the identified desires are being given successfully. These enter a sense of belongingness among these individuals and enhance their sport activities and events potentials. The social concepts of desire and belongingness are also being used to ensure that sport activities and events adhere to the standards of each socially constructed sports enthusiasts and athletes. All in all it can be said that to be able to meet the needs of the consumers, sport activities and events must consider the sense of belongingness and social context of desire among target sports enthusiasts and athletes.

Training for athletes is a fundamental activity because its what keeps them in shape and competitive therefore, training should be undertaken with dedication. Furthermore, annual training is critical in ensuring that an athlete is well prepared and at all times. Having an annual plan plays a very big role in the preparation of athletes. First, it helps identify the type of job to be done second, how it should or will be done and this involves setting goals finally, it gives a plan and timeframe of achieving the goals. This paper shall focus on developing a short term annual training program for competitive athletes with the hope that they will greatly improve their performance.

Physiological Needs
The physiological needs of the athletes will include the need for flexibility, power and strength. Training for flexibility is usually undervalued when athletes go for conditioning. This is very important in prevention of injuries. Flexibility is that range of motion that the joints can afford. Flexibility is beneficial since it increases the range of the movement of the joint. This can effectively enhance performance and possibility of injury. The rationale in this instance is the limb is able to move very far before some form of injury can occur. 
Stretching is equally important and its linked to the augmented risk of muscle tears can be decreased before the training or the competition with dynamic stretching. When competition is tough there can be fairly disturbing on the body. Training for flexibility program can assist to correct these disparities preventing chronic.
Training for strength is very important for strengthening the core muscles. Strength stabilizes the shoulder since it supports many of the muscles. Strength trainings helps top stabilize the hip musculature which is considered d the power centre.
Speed training is achieved from the strength and stability training sessions. Its very obvious that without the proper body flexibility and strength, an athlete can never achieve his potential speed.  Leg strengths is very important in that a man should able to squat about ten times. Strengths of the Hips, thighs, hamstring and glutes is critical.

Current Athletes Status
The athlete for this training program is an 800 and 1500 metres runner. The basic reason for this part is to ensure that the real problems are identified and solutions thereof (The American Dietetic Association 2003). The list below is a summary of the athletes profile (Bompa, R PasqualeM.D 2003).
Athlete Riddick Hamilton
Gender Male
Age 27
Profession Track Runner
Nick nameTrack King
CurrentlyEncinitas, CA
Height59
Weight170 lbs (72kgs)
Sport Athletics
Medals 2 Gold, 5 Silver (8 Total)
Performers Competition Objectives
The athlete should be able to finish the race with a very strong determination
The athlete should be ale to win more titles and set the record in that field. 
The athlete should be able to exercise endurance in all races
The athlete should be physically, emotionally and socially prepared for competition. (Bompa, R PasqualeM.D. 2003)
The Training Program
The beginning of the year is very important in deciding the way training will be carried out. Before the setting of a training regiment, basic information from the athlete will be recorded and stored. The athlete will be assessed to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses. Identifying the attributes is the first step (Pyke 2001). Next is to evaluate the athlete against the ideal requirements of an athlete. The gap between them is what needs to be covered during the training sessions.
Periodisation
This is fundamentally the way the year is organised into several different phases in which each phase is given a specific goal to develop in the athlete. The year will therefore be divided into six phases as below Phase 1  16 weeks  September, October, November, December Phase 2   8 weeks  January, February Phase 3 - 8 weeks  March, April, Phase 4  8 weeks  May, June Phase 5 - 8 weeks - July, August and Phase 6  4 weeks  September. The indoor activities will go up to week six in phase one and four times in phase two and according to recommendations by the trainer. This assumes that the competition climax will be in August. The (Pyke Outdoor) session will be in all sessions. The objectives of the phases are to develop different aspects as follows
Phase 1  Developing endurance, strength, flexibility and primary technique
Phase 2 - Developing definite robustness and superior technical skills
Phase 3  Achieving the competitive experience
Phase 4 - Modification of technical form training for the major competition
Phase 5  Achieving a more competitive advantage (Pyke Outdoor)
Phase 6 - Aggressive recovery by planning groundwork for subsequent seasons
Periodisation has two essential parts that make it easier for planning and better performance after the training.

 The Annual Training Program
Training PhasePreparation Competitive Transition Sub-PhasesGeneralSpecific Pre-competitionCompetitionchangeover Macro-cyclesMicro-cycles
The preparatory phase of periodisation is divided into a general and specific sub phase according to the distinctiveness of the training (Pyke 2001). These are followed by a pre-competitive period. However, these sub-phases do also have smaller divisions of macro and eventually micro-cycles.
How best an athlete performs is greatly dependent on the speed of adaptation to the process of training, psychological adjustment and the amount of competition plus the rates of developing the skills and capabilities. (Pyke 2001) The length of the phases is also determined by the time that will be needed by the athlete to increase the level of training.
The Rationale for the Training
There is dire need for success in every aspect of a task that is undertaken by athletes. The training is necessary because it helps athletes to build skills and perfect performance over time. The athletes then develop physiological endurance by practicing more and eating healthy (Pyke 2001). Attaining stratagem, skill and exercises require a unique approach. Periodisation is an example of such an approach. The athlete needs to be able to recognize strength training describe training methods to perk up strength and power and to make training techniques to develop strength.
The Macro-Cycle this is the period that defines the time that is available before the main competition. Its further divided into micro-cycles with is shorter. The cycle is normally 7 - 10 weeks and it most times seeks to solve specific objectives. This is quite different for the pre-competitive in that micro cycle uses very detailed information while the pre-consumption is quite general

The recent past has experienced changes in the lifestyle of a number of Americans and other people around the world.  Economy has been doing poorly leading to the great disappointments in the Wall Street and the New York Stock Exchange. This led to numerous meetings in the White House aimed at marshalling the rank and identifying proper steps to be undertaken.  
The management of sports is analogous to any form of business management and even surpasses it to some extent.  It is critical to have a wider approach when dealing with college sports or at professional level.  As a result to this key importance in professional and college sports management, the study of professional sports and general sports has been advancing over the past decades (Fizel, Fort, 2004).  Antitrust exemptions have led US team owners to exert power of monopoly and joined hands to sell the league games rights of broadcasting to radio and television stations.  The same has been reflected in college sports where football coaches and some other coaches have run the clubs in a careless way thus impacting the economic standards of the clubs.  A better payment of the players and provision of training facilities seems crucial to the advancement of college or professional sports.  It was in the past that an athlete was bound to a club until the he or she is traded, retired or released.  This was especially provided for by a reserve clause that was contained in the athletes contract.  The clause made the team owners to have excess powers over the payments of sportsmen (Goff, 2005).  As a result, strike activities player unions and a call for greater freedom were incepted to change the overall management of the teams. 
Professional teams like the Old Traffords Manchester United are feeling the heat of economic recession.  It is no doubts that Manchester United is the most famous team and most important sports franchise in the world.  Following the collapse of the Manchester United sponsor, the American Insurance Group (AIG), the team experienced the heat of the recession while helplessly watching its hallowed pitch and carefully chosen red shirts with an AIG logo.  Earlier, AIG had signed a sponsorship deal with the team which would award Man U upward of USD 100 million (Brook, 2005).  The economic falls in the most respected football champions club can be blamed on several reasons.  Some of the reasons leading to the poor economical standards in the club are well known by Malcolm Glazer, the businessman who owns Man U including Tampa Bay Buccaneers.  The sponsorship deal has been a secret and Man U declined to answer any question regarding the sponsorship.  The club also rejected requests from ESPN.com to take an interview with owner of the club who is a Rochester born businessman.
The economical impacts on any club will surely mean that something wrong might happen within the management.  However, Joe Norton, who is an AIG spokesman claimed that the relationship between AIG and the club still existed strongly and that the normal business was not interrupted (Koivula, 2001). 
The economic changes must impact the way sports is managed. A constant flow of finances will definitely make or build the club to be stronger.  Similarly, the step by the House of Representative to sign off on the Wall Street bailout or the stabilization of Dow Jones Index has at least some economical effect in some place.  It is not business as usual as the Philip Townsend who is the director of communications seems to put a cover on the serious economic challenge.  The ailing economy of a state or a club is it in college or a professional club has an array of setbacks which might be felt in the long term (Thelin, 2005).  This is an impression that the already existing problem might not have a great impact but might lock out channels of revenue by contracting especially from television rights.  It is evident that the most of the revenues gained by leagues come from those long television deals.  This is a common way by which most owners of teams and league executives insulate themselves against the hot economic weather.  Most clubs depend on this source, the television deals to run their normal business.  It is a guaranteed income as some call it.  The layers of insulation protecting most clubs from economic roasting include both the leagues television and other interests globally (Crego, 2003). Because of global connections, sources of income especially from television will not dry out.  Although the economic heat affects the US market, in China, Europe and Asia the business is blossoming. 
Whichever the reactions or comments denying that economic recession has nothing to do with sports, the fact remains that sports is highly impacted by economic wellbeing of clubs in both college and professional levels.  The most common outcome of economic recession is the stoppage of majority of luxuries. It is not only the economic recession which will cause this but also any form of downturn and worse financial event.  The luxury boxes will have to be minimized or closed completely following economic hardships.  It has been observed that luxury boxes are the basis for collapses in the values and profitability of franchises.  Some strategies have been set by professional team sports of getting the arenas and the ballparks back to the centers of the city (Fizel, Fort, 2004).  In addition, the professional team sports have built and taken advantage of the business community connection.  This has been done by luring high income clienteles into the stadia and boosting the gate receipts.  This also makes the advertising market richer and the money obtained from signage and sponsorship is greater. 
Clubs experiencing hard economic times like the Red Wings and the Tigers have exempted the luxury boxes and instead fixed the master suites.  The master suites resemble the seating for Gold Club premium which can be bought in blocks or one time ticket. These types of tickets are of more demand to any average fan.  These tickets allow ordinary people to enjoy luxury box- like experience at an affordable rate.  This approach has been employed by clubs in San Diego, Colorado and Milwaukee (Goff, 2005).  The evolution to redesign the stadia and marketing it to the fans will however take a very long time before it gains fruits to the sport industry.  It may take approximately up to two decades but this does not sound like bad news to other critics.  The critics argue that the plan mirrors the greed in those people who are disgraced by the Wall Street.  The critics add that, although the luxury loges of the Giants and the Jets stadium are largely sold, it might result to the personal seat license and the loges not to be resold or renewed (Norman, 2007).  It is the same thing that may happen when the people leave their home investments.  Walking away from stadium investments seems likely. 
The teams that may experience much of the effect of hard economic downturn in the US are those in the New York City.  The most probable reason why New York teams will much be affected being that the New York City is the countrys financial capital.  Economic analysts claim that up to 60,000 jobs may be lost during the downturn.  The jobs talked of here are those occupied by high income clientele.  Some solutions have been sought to cut out a niche in the already tightening market (Thelin, 2008).  In addition to the other personal seating license and the ever rising costs of tickets, a couple of teams have started pairing down to one season ticket.   At the same time, the selling of blocks of seat may prove very unachievable.  The hard economic times of club may see them very difficult to have a more stable domain legal standing. 
The naming of clubs arenas and stadia is likely to change because of the economic impact.  The franchise sponsorships will also not be spared.  The corporations constantly look at the name of the name and try to examine what is in the name of a club.  The change of name will mean fewer high paying customers.  The corporations will also tend to be meaner and leaner.  Some teams will have less profitable set rights of signage and naming.  Sports marketers agree that utmost attention should be observed in the rights of naming deals because extravagant marketing partnerships exist and hence the aspect needs reassessment.  The process of reassessment has been considered not only because of the increase in price but also the trust drawn from the sponsors (Brook, 2005).  The corporate sponsors always rethink on what they can do in the medium and short run.  They have to provide business trust to the shareholders so that the shareholders will see some sense in the investments in sport marketing. The pressure felt by the country at large, mainly originating from the economic recession, is felt even in the corporate part of America.  It is more to do than just the dollar value.  Various industries are affected by the recession and especially the sports industry has come to get a portion of the bitter pill. The corporate sponsors have changed the deals significantly (Riess, 1998).  What used to be a three year deal is currently a one year deal. 
The economic hardships may not be such cruel to professional athletes. The players will be hit most by the rollback of salaries, prize money and payrolls of teams.  This will result from the change in flow of the streams of revenue from naming rights, luxury boxes, and sponsorship and in arena adverts. The ripple effect will come to the players if the factors last for a long time.  The players contracts get diminished and this impacts the pay of the players.  This can technically be termed as offseason jobs.  Sports as a profession ends at some time and may pick in some period (Thelin, 2008).   The decrease in salary of the players acts to equalize the reduction of contracts. These controlling mechanisms work for sometime to realize an effective impact.
The fall in economy will lead to the depreciating in value of all major assets in a business environment.  Sports management is one form of such business whose franchise loses value.  The price tagged on a particular team will automatically shrink which will in turn have profound effects on the sale of franchises.  There exist the stable rich men known as tycoons who will take advantage of situation of lower prices.  They always have a misconception or rather belief that franchise financing acquisition is often difficult to come by.  The truth is that the valuation of franchise is based on the generated revenues and is usually discounted on any kind of fallout of some revenue channels (Goff, 2005).  On the other hand, the upward trend or appreciation of the values of franchise is depended on luxury seating healthy market.  Majority of franchise were squeezed in position in the US even before the collapse of various banks due to the Wall Street. 
The hard economic times definitely is felt by the general public.  Team owners in the recent couple of decades who coveted the freshly built stadia or arena had a leverage game at his disposal.  This was always aimed at rolling out the blue print for a splendid play box.  The trick worked in a funny way.  The owners would often threaten to withdraw their teams if the public had problems paying for the new and potential teams.  They would simply take their teams to a place which had more pay. It will be very hard to finance for the new stadia.  In fact even the financing of the franchise acquisition will be a problem (Brook, 2005).  The public perspective to invest in new sports will be lost and in tougher economies, the owners with great plans will need to consider the additional degree of difficulty.  The financial loaning institutions are not ready to give out assistance to the investors to develop new stadia. The fact is however that there are a lot of credits to be given to qualified people to borrow (Knight, et al, 2006).  The financial institutions may claim that there more pressing issues and the plans are less enthusiastic hence the money is not available for the projects of developing sports.
Generally, the cycle of economic hardships is vey hard to solve, it is like a cyclic occurrence affecting a large group of institutions and people.  The recovery of the recession will not either have god results on the development of sports.  The borrowers and lending institutions will be forced to add rigor in scrutinizing the whole process of borrowing and lending until they can prove that the recovery has attained an accepted level.  The teams that are a little bit safe are those that have almost been completed or those already running smoothly.  Otherwise, starters teams have to face a big problem (Thelin, 2008).  The same thing applies to college, youth or professional level teams. Another factor to put safety in the teams is timely financing plans.  It will not matter to have just financing but it will depend entirely on the planning on reasonable basis.  In fact, the already establishes leagues will experience successful running even if they do not exploit their new projects.  This is only possible through prior planning.  The teams that have their long term planning in place may not receive any serious impacts (McComb, 2007).  It has been observed that teams that have a well backup of financing rarely experience problems of management. 
An economic downturn can have a worst impact on professional athletes who sometimes are highly paid.  Others still may be cleaned out due to the effect of the recession.  These professionals are not different from the rest of us.  They are never spared when recessions come. Some keen financial planners of some teams dont claim this to be true.  They stick to a belief that the bad incidences will not happen with their teams.  They argue that their players are always kept in fixed rate investments and out of equity status.  The claim that most athletes are life gamblers and serous risk takers is taking root (Goff, 2005).  They do a lot of gambling in the field and in real life situations. 
Team owners who get collapsed by the hard economic times dont just quit and end up showing how the transactions have led to a massive fall.  When the league and the team are laid off, the official sport outfits will tend to slash the ranks. The laying off of employees due to economic recession has happened and will continue to happen. It is not totally a new thinking.  The laying off is termed as a management strategy which has to be done to make things straight.  Sports as a job does not have any risk attached because it is being managed by a local team. 
The economic downturn affects a lot of areas in sports.  The youth level sports are never spared.  For a team to progress there must be sponsors and who are trustworthy.  Some sponsors may take an advantage of the poor economic status and use the players in a manner less way. The players will be paid very poorly if they do not get a reliable sponsor.  Another issue arising from financing the clubs at youth level is the general infrastructure needed in any sports training.  Take for example in soccer, the players need balls and other facilities for training which may be hard to come by if the financial status of the club is ailing (Crego, 1998).  This is often reflected from the poor performance of the players.  Poor performance is always followed by mistrust from the fans.  The supporters will decrease in number than what may have been in the past.  The names of the clubs will lose meaning and value because the fans will always be teased of supporting a weak team (Brook, 2005).  Because of poor finances, what used to be the name to shout out loud is now said in silence.  It impacts greatly the college level sports if funds are not provided for sports.  Form training to travelling to different areas for either tournaments or friendly matches will not be possible. 
In general, the economy has a big part to play in the management sports across all levels.  From the youths levels to fully autonomous professional levels, economic impacts are felt so loud and this always leads to poor performance of the clubs or teams.  There is need however to streamline the management of sports so that the downfalls dont always cripple the development of sports.  Studies in sports science and sport management should address the uncertainties occurring during economic recession.  Through the building of this capacity sports, which is an essential element in our society can thrive. 

Should student athletes be required to maintain a certain grade point average to participate in college sports
One of the oldest traditions associated with higher education is the integration of athletics with the education system. Most of the higher education institutions have eventually formed intercollegiate athletic programs. Extra-curricular activities have the nature of being too involving, especially with tight travel schedules. It makes it difficult for the student-athletes to make effective use of the library resources. This fact has consequently led to the question as to whether there is need for the student-athletes to maintain a certain grade point for them to participate in college sports (King, 39). The United States administration is currently undertaking education reforms towards raising the standards of the higher institutions.
 The new reforms require that a student-athlete must meet a satisfactory academic progress towards the standards set by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).  In my opinion, the student-athletes should lead by example by maintaining certain grade points for them to participate in college sports. Also, study conducted by North Carolina Athletic Association indicated that the grade point average for the athletes was 2.98 while that of the non-athlete students was a low of 2.17. This is a clear indication that the education is significant to the athletic programs.
    It should be noted that sports is not limited to the fieldwork. For an institution or an individual to be successful in sports, use of library and the internet resources will have to be incorporated into the system. This definitely requires some skills thus training must come in hand. Failure to maintain certain grade point average (GPA) by the student-athletes will limit their level of accessibility to the sports information which is often present over the web.
  Class work should go hand in hand with the physical education (John, 69). Being a professional athlete is a dream that most of the students have but it is not always guaranteed to anyone. Having a good education foundation ensures that the student-athletes do not loose the sole reason as to why they are in the sports profession.
    Also, there is the issue of scholarship which is normally granted to the student-athletes. In my perspective, the scholarship is a form of compensation in exchange of maintaining a good GPA. Thus, it is logical for one to excel in the academic work in order to be granted the scholarship. Minimum GPA also ensures that the students grade point average is improved because any student who aspires to be a professional athlete will work hard towards attaining the academic requirement which will in turn boost his or her academic performance.
 College athletics is often rocked by conflict which normally arises when two competing teams feel dissatisfied with how the sporting activities were supervised. In such situations students who have met the minimum GPA requirement will not in anyway engage in the confrontation. Rather, they will come up with procedures on how best to address their source of dissatisfaction. The reasoning capacity of a student-athlete who has met the minimum GPA varies greatly from that of a person who has not attained the GPA (Kerr, 16). The minimum GPA is also a way of minimizing the rate of dropping out of school. This is so because as long as a student meets the minimum GPA he or she has the right to be involved in the learning institution and to participate in the sporting activities.
Counter argument
A counter argument against the GPA in athletic programs is that it sets unequal standards of learning in the school system. The demand to attain the good grades and at the same time deliver great performance in the fieldwork is too much for the youngsters. The programs are not student friendly because they put too much burden on them. This has prompted many athletic directors to engage in talks that would see a drop in the minimum academic requirement for the student-athletes (Miller, Wiggins, 53).
Excessive demand on these youngsters prompts them to use enhancing drugs which can boost their memory and their physical condition thus the GPA has the negative impacts on the students. I am also of the opinion that the GPA requirement will play a negative role towards nurturing the talent of different individuals. This is so because one may not be talented in the two fields (fieldwork and class work). By simply declaring himher not eligible to join the college based on the academic performance will just hinder the student from realizing hisher potential.
Others argue that good grades and concentration in class work is a factor of the amount of time that you spend while exercising. They argue that exercise leads to the development and co-ordination of both physical and motor skills. Another study involving students like Alicia Bogacz of Dracut and Amy Silveiora of Billrica registered a perfect 4.0 grade point during the 2001 fall semester. These student-athletes were among the 20 students who were honored by the University of Massachusetts on the National Student Athlete Day. This was after they had engaged in various sporting activities (Kerr, 67). It also promotes the physical memory. A release by the Pennsylvania State University indicted that an estimate of 370 student-athletes earned a grade of 3.0 or higher during the 2008 spring summer semester. This was 55 of the 677 students who were members of the Penn States varsity sport last summer.

An Overview of Sport MarketingThe book covers the general concepts of sports marketing. It identifies the marketing opportunities, processes and the general understanding of the sport consumer. T addresses key marketing arenas like segmentation, identifying target market and also positioning within markets. It also addresses issues like how to price and place sports facilities. It also directly looks into advertising as a way of sports marketing. The book further looks at ways of enhancing promotion and public relations. In conclusion it gives insight into coordination and control of marketing strategies. It will be used to establish the key areas of sports marketing and their discussion. This book will be very fundamental to the study
Richard, J. S. (1999). Sports MarketingAn Examination of Academic Marketing Publication. Journal of Services Marketing , 13 (6), 517 - 535.
It addresses the area of sports marketing within the sporting arena. The article identifies sponsorship as a key factor in marketing. It will be used to offer a case study of the changes within sports marketing as a discipline.
Lynn, R. . (2004). Sports Marketing and the Psychology of Marketing Communication. Oregon NJ Publication.
This book advances thorough understanding of sports marketing. It does this by providing scholarly and comprehensive ways of addressing the issue. It introduces some key innovative ways of enhancing the same. Of significance is its use of psychological approach to improve understanding of sports marketing. It covers all the spheres of sports marketing. It will be used to analyze the psychological forces behind sports marketing as well as the key areas that build up sports marketing.
 
This book makes an economic assessment of existing business deals involving sports. It shows the factors that have led to the economic growth of sports marketing as an economical tool. The book also highlights the kind of deals presented to the actual participants, players. This book will be used to highlight case studies as well as addressing the plight of players who are the key stakeholders within sports marketing.       
Stotlar, D. K. (1995). Developing Successful Sport Marketing Plans . Chicago Adventure Works Press.
In this book the author uses his diverse experience to explain how to build working plans within sports marketing area. He gives specific issues of consideration n development of successful plans. This book will be used to identify the key issues to consider in building a good and effective sports marketing tool.
Villegas, R. (2006). The Fundamentals of Sponsor Search. Oxford Oxford University Press.The book basically is a guide for teams  seeking sponsorship. It guides the teams in understanding the needs of the sponsors hence have the ability to attract them and also keep them. This book will be used to identify and understand the interest of key stakeholders, sponsors in  sports marketing.
Watt, D. C. (2003). Sports Management and Administration. New York Routledge.
This book gives a clear analysis of sports management within the United Kingdom. It gives an overview of the many revolutions within the sports industry. It addresses the finance, marketing and strategies within Sports Management and Administration. It will be used to identify the forms of key marketing strategies applied n sports.
Zimbalist, A. (1999). Unpaid Professionals and Conflict in Big time College Sports. Oxford  Princeton University Press .
It expolores the role of sports in schools. It further adresses the varous effect that sports commecialization have on acedmic work of the students. In addition t exposes the massiev commercialization of college sports . The book also analyzes goals, structureincentive system and most importantly the legal archtecture of college sports. This book will be used to analyze how sports marketing affects education.

Womens participation in sport has a long history. It is a history marked by division and discrimination but also one filled with major accomplishments by female athletes and important advances for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls.
Boxing has for a very long time been known to be a sport for men only. Even though some records show that girls were training as far back as in the 1920s, the girls and womens interest in the sport were not taken noticed of till the 1990stheir acceptance as boxers almost cost AIBA a court case against human rights. The road to recognition has been long and not without road blocks.
    Despite the said hurdle, a couple of names emerged in the female boxing scene. Theres Barbara Buttrick, whose fight became famous for being the first female boxer televised on a national scale in 1954 Caroline Svendsen, Cathy Cat Davis, and Marian Lady Tiger Trimiar were one of the few who received their licenses to box since 1975 and of course, Laila She-Bee Stingin Ali who is also the daughter of the great Muhammad Ali.
Since the sport is physical in nature, women who have decided to engage in the activity must also undergo a rigid training program. As Richard Seymour wrote on his blog, boxing may at times look easy when watching from the comfort of your living room, however the basics of the sport require a great deal of mental skill and strategy and of course a tremendous amount of physical training.
METHODOLOGY
    When one hears the word boxing, perhaps the first few things that would pop in their mind would be knockouts and injuriesthats what televised professional boxing does to you. On the other hand, amateur and Olympic boxing gives importance to the landing of good punches while maintaining defense. Men and women must be able to train and enhance on their speed, endurance, flexibility and strength in order to perform good inside the ring.
    The client that we are dealing with is clear with what she wants to achieve. At the end of the program, the client wants to be able to do four things punch harder, be ready in every boxing situation, move quickly, and punch at the maximum level of power in boxing.
    To be able to achieve the desired outcome, routines that would focus on increasing the clients upper body strength, speed, flexibility, power and muscular endurance must be formulated and strictly followed.
    In order to reach the said stage, the trainer must first pre-examine the client so as to determine those that need focus and those that requires a few touch-ups.
DATA ANALYSIS
    In order to determine the best program that will be effective for achieving the desired result of the client, various procedures were conducted on the 30th of November 2009 in order to measure her strong and weak points. The following exercises were specifically picked based on the output that measure
    1RM Test (Chest Press) The purpose of this is to measure the maximum strength of the chest muscle groups.
Rower (100m) This type of muscular training tends to exercise the muscles that draw the rowers arms toward the body and those that support the spine.
Sit and Reach (1 minute) This test is the most common way to measure lower back and hamstring flexibility.
Sit-ups (1 minute) Its main purpose is to strengthen the stomach muscles by challenging the abdominal group the rectus abdominus muscles, or abs (two thin strips of muscle that extend from the breastbone to the pelvis), and the three layers of muscles that flank the abs.
Bike (500m) The apparatus is known to increase range of motion of time hip, knee, and ankle to strengthen muscles of time knee and ankle and to improve range of motion and strength of the extremity in general.
Horizontal Jump Proves to be a reliable and valid method to assess unilateral leg power.
Meanwhile, the table below summarizes the result of the activities
Table 1 Summary of Strengths and Weaknesses
TESTSTRENGTHWEAKNESSCOMMENT1RM Test (Chest Press)Form the initial weight of 30kgf, the client was able to add another 5kgf on the second attempt. This is a good indication that she will be able to increase her punching strength rapidly.Rower (100m)For a beginner, a .9sec difference from the first try (23.9) is a good start. Since there is an evident improvement in speed, chances are, as the program goes along, the client will be able to move faster.Sit and Reach (1 min)In order to get the best result, the client had to do three attempts. The first two measured only 6cm and the last one landed on a woman s average level of 9cm. It is necessary to push on this exercise for this will improve her flexibility.Sit-ups (1 min)This test is measure muscular endurance. The client did pretty well, with 41 non-stop sit-ups for a period of one minute. Bike (500m)Another speed test that also measures quadriceps muscle strength. The client managed to finish the 500m cycling in a span of 1 minute and 26 seconds, which is quite impressive for a beginner.Horizontal JumpThe client did a very poor job on this test, which measures power level. Among the three trials, she only managed to increase her distance on the third try by 5cm. She measured 130cm on the first two and 135cm on the last. This one is going to be on top priority.
    The classification of the results was based on a three-point scale where one ranks as an outstanding result, followed by a satisfactorily met one and the third being the poorest among the others. In cases where the results are equal, a clincher will determine the best record.


RECOMMENDATION
    According to an article in Women 2000 and Beyond, women are frequently segregated involuntarily into different types of sports, events and competitions specifically targeted to women. But through the years, the female population didnt let discrimination stop them from aiming and getting their selves involved on what they want. And establishing an enabling environment for gender equality and the empowerment of women they include improving womens capabilities
    Boxing is one of the sports that have been meant to cater the male population but in the past events, more and more women take the plunge into the sport and succeed. A lot of females have established themselves in this arena thus, inspiring others to do the same and aim to do well in it.
    The client that we are dealing with is one of those who aspire on becoming a good boxer. Not only that she wanted to prove that she can dominate the mans world, but shes doing this for her personal gain as well.

    Training is an essential preparation for providing strength and endurance needed for boxing. Based on the results of the initial exercise, its safe to conclude that the client needs to focus on improving her power level and flexibility. The previous mentioned ranked the lowest consecutively. Her speed, endurance and muscular strength wouldnt take long as compared to the prior enumerated since she was able to establish a good starting point with those.
On increasing the low points
    Punching power and flexibility are the two components that our client has to focus on. To increase such, the suggested program will be a bit heavier on weight and flexibility training.
    Based on Joe De Franco, maximal strength builds the foundation for all other forms of strength, including explosive power. You cant throw a powerful punch if you dont possess a base level of maximal strength. The best way to get maximally strong is to lift heavy weights and do lots of sets. Following the above mentioned, he suggested a two strength training days per week which is composed of the following
    Day 1
    Maximal Strength Complex Training (Rest for 10 secs in between sets)
14-inch barbell bench press with chains, six sets of three reps
Heavy bag straight punches, six sets of 15 secs Throw straight punches (alternating between the right and the left hand) for 15 secs. Do three sets from a right-handed stance and three sets from a left-handed stance. Rest after each superset.
Supplemental Upper Back  External Rotator Work (Rest for 10 secs in between sets)
Chest supported rows or bent-over dumbbell rows, three sets of 12 reps
Seated external rotation, elbow on knee, three sets of 15 reps. Rest 90 secs between supersets.
Supplemental Posterior Chain Work (Rest for 60 secs in between sets)
Reverse hyperextensions, four sets of ten reps
Day 2 (23 days after day 1 client can choose either of the two)
Power snatch, six sets of two reps, rest 23 min between sets
Box squats withbands(parallel), 68 sets of two reps, and rest 3045seconds between sets
To finish day two, do extra external rotator work and keep upper arm on the side. Varying the upper arm positions will ensure full development of the external rotators.
Free Motion, on the other hand, suggests on including the following activities to improve flexibility. The programs exercises target priority muscle groups thus, hinders muscle tightness or imbalances.
IT-Band. Use body weight and a foam roller to prepare upper leg muscles and tissue to work out. The IT band warm-up will help reduce the pain and tension in thighs. Do it for 45 secs on each leg.
Piriformis. This stretches upper leg and hip. Pressure from the foam roller also helps to warm the area. Hold this stretch for 45 secs on each hip.
Pec Stretch. This focuses on lengthening the muscles of the upper, middle and lower chest while engaging the muscles of the middle back to retract and stabilize. Do the stretch for 30 secs on each side.
Hamstring Stretch. Stretch each leg for at least 30 secs.
On improving the good points
As for the clients good result on the speed, endurance and muscular strength test, the obvious way to do is a good follow through. Stepping another notch on exercises that would improve her skills on the given three will definitely produce great results.
Ross Enamait suggest on doing the Jump Rope Training. It will not only enhance ones quickness, but it is also proven to be beneficial on the coordination, agility, footwork and endurance. Focusing on the skills then followed by conditioning is the key for this program. To do this, the trainee will have to start with 20 second intervals on the rope. Keeping the intervals brief and stopping before fatigue accumulates is the key. Once you get the hang of this, the client will surely move with 1 up to 3 minute rounds. Do the reps with 30-60 seconds interval each.
For strength and endurance, Richard Seymour suggests on doing the following activities
Squats. Perform and master squats for a good free weight strength builder for the lower body. Squats increase the overall lasting power and strength of the legs, abs, hips, glutes and lower back--all important areas for a boxer. Hold a pair of dumbbells against your chest or a barbell across your upper back. Work your way through a full range of motion and do not cut the exercise short by stopping your descent too early. Sit onto a bench or box about knee height to help serve as a depth target for beginners. Stand with your feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart and your feet facing forward or pointed out slightly. Bend at the hips and knees, sitting back as though you are descending into a chair. Stop when your thighs are parallel to the floor and reverse the motion, using the strength of your lower body and core to push the weight back to the starting position. Choose a conservative weight to begin, performing three or four sets of eight to 10 reps, increasing the weight as your leg-strength increases.
Overhead Press. Perform dumbbell overhead presses to further increase the strength and endurance of your shoulders. Grab a pair of dumbbells and hold them in both hands against your chest. Initiate the movement by pressing them both overhead simultaneously and explosively, allowing the sides of the dumbbells to touch together as your elbows lock out. Take one to two full seconds to lower the weight slowly back to your chest under complete control. Repeat this exercise for two to three sets of eight to 10 reps, increasing the weight of the dumbbells as your muscles become stronger.
    As long as the client is able to dedicatedly follow each and every procedure mentioned in the recommendation above for a good two to three months, and of course coupled with proper diet, she will be able to ace her objectives and will be able to aim for the next level.
With all the experts advices and a good training program, the most important thing is that one knows what he wants and does something to achieve it. There is no hindrance too big for a determined soul.

The world is inhabited by people of different racial background. Racism has been one of the problems facing the world, especially, as it regards treatment of minority groups.  For a long time, people of African and Asian origin and other minority groups have faced systematic racial discrimination all over the world. In almost all countries, minority groups face discrimination in different spheres of life. Racial discrimination is a major problem that is faced by blacks and other racial minority groups.  Although a certain progress has been achieved, there are still cases of inequalities and discrimination which continue to structure that the reality of sports for most blacks and ethnic minorities.  Research findings have shown that blacks and people of minority origin have faced widespread discrimination which has limited their capability to participate in sports.  This has prompted governments and concerned authorities to enact legal mechanism that is meant to protect minority groups from discrimination and racism.  However, inequalities and discrimination still remains major hurdles for blacks and ethnic minorities to participate fully in sports.
Racism, inequalities and discrimination of black people and ethnic minorities in sports
Sport is considered to be one of the activities that unite people. It is a common language spoken by different peoples, even those, who come from different racial backgrounds. For example, football, which is considered to have more than one billion fans, is viewed as a language which unites the one billion people who come from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Sports unite people and help them to speak the same language. Participation in sports is considered to be a matter of interest. People go in for sports for different reasons, one of them being recreation. Sport is a form of interaction that helps people to know each other well and, hence, form a common understanding.  However, the discrimination and inequalities have been the greatest inhibitory factors to the successful participation of sports by people including the racial minorities.

While sport is supposed to create unity and understanding, it has been one of the avenues through which racism has been propagated. There have been widespread cases of racism, inequalities, and discrimination in sports, especially, targeting black people and ethnic minorities. Like in other spheres of life, they have been systematically discriminated in sports, which hinders them from fully participation like other races.

As the society becomes diverse and multicultural, there have been various issues which inhibit successful integration of all the components of the society to make it one. Development and equality issues continue to haunt most multicultural societies as they try to implement inclusion policies.  The sporting sectors in the UK and other countries are among those which have been faced by these challenging issues that are becoming hard to fight, unless the root causes which can be traced to racism are dealt with. A number of past researches have revealed that as the society becomes ethnically diverse, so is this diversity reflected in sporting facilities (Long et al.  2009).  These reports have shows that there are many barriers which inhibit participation of minority groups in sports including material constraints, racial discrimination, stereotyping as can be reflected in their worry  to access a culturally appropriate sport or a physical recreation activities. These are major factors that have inhibited the increase participation of blacks and other minority groups in sports and recreation facilities.

However, factors inhibiting the full participation of blacks and minority groups in sports extend beyond the assumed racism, from which inequality and discrimination arise.  Research findings show that there are many disadvantages which come from high rate of unemployment, low wages and incomes, pathetic living conditions, poor health, and others which are the causes of inequality and discrimination in sports. These factors act as constrains to the access of materials and, hence, limit the participation in sports. The most important point that can be deduced from this description is that ethnicity should not be taken as the only factor limiting participation of blacks and other racial minorities in sports as there are other diverse factors. Rather, inequality and discrimination stems from the way ethnicity intersects with other factors like gender, class, incomes, disability, age, and others which are main factors that shape opportunities to participate in sports (McLean 2009).

The media have also been cited as another factor that intersects with the above mentioned factors to shrink opportunities for blacks and other racial minorities to participate in sports.  The media have been accused of portrayals and racial stereotypes which are held by people in the society that limits participation of blacks and racial minorities in sports.  Media stereotypes are not necessarily negative to act as a barrier to participation in sports. For example, when the media depicts a person from a certain racial group over and over again, this creates a stereotypic image that relates the sports to that race. 
In the UK, it is widely believed that bitter and angry exchanges evidenced between players and spectators constitute racism and discrimination in sports. However, research findings shows that widespread discrimination and inequality are major problems that affect sports at different levels.  These are superficial problems which are believed to result from racism.

It has been observed that a lower proportion of people who come from ethnic minorities participate in sports compared to other races (Trivedi 2009).  The national average participation in sports is dominated by larger races and very few black and other racial minorities have participated. One study that was carried out by English Sports Councils showed that many people who come from ethnic minorities were more than willing to try sports, but one of the major hindrances has been lack of sporting facilities. This implies that, unlike other races that have access to world class sporting facilities, blacks and racial minorities lack access to such facilities which are important for sporting activities (Long et al. 2009). Sport facilities are essential for laying down the sporting infrastructure and without access to the required and recommended facilities participation in sports would be minimal if not impossible.

In the same study, it was revealed that racist incidents were also among major factors that inhibited participation in sports.  Racist incidents did not only put them off, but they also made many of them keep off from sports. The study revealed that one in every ten black men or men with Caribbean origin had a negative experience in sports owing to their ethnicity.
The study also revealed that sports suffer from stereotyping.  This implies that there are some games which are related to a given race or ethnic group. Stereotyping is dangerous as it discourages other groups from participating in the said sports, as they feel not part of it. For example in this study, a survey carried out on spectators revealed that 83.3 believed that basketball was natural sports for Africans while 65.1 believed that it was a natural sport for Asians (Long et al. 2009). As a result, people are likely to avoid participating in basketball, since they will relate it to the assigned racial group. When they cannot identify with the racial group, they cannot participate in the game. This is one of the major factors that are making it difficult for blacks and other racial minorities to participate in some sports which are assumed to be for whites.

Interestingly, the study reveled that, despite the perceived stereotyping in basketball, the UK national structure for management of the sport was dominated by whites. This indicates that, despite the game being played by mostly blacks and Asians, the management structured was dominated by the white people.  Racism, inequalities and discrimination can be perceived to be a major factor that has inhibited blacks and other racial minorities to participate in management of teams (Scott Porter Research 2001).  Despite being the main players, very few blacks and other racial minorities make up sports management levels. Inequality in management implies that majority of players find their issues not well tackled since they may not identify with the management structure.

Racial discrimination studies carried out in the UK show that the opportunity to develop sport in the minority deprived communities has been greatly compromised by the justification of the racial discrimination within the social control and the empowerment avenues (Houlihan 2003). There are preconceived ideologies that assume racial discrimination to be legal.  Over the last thirty years, there have been a number of initiatives put in place to improve the position of minority groups in sports, but little has been achieved.

Although there has some been progress made in some areas, inequalities and racism still exist. In the United States, research findings show that racial minority groups are major participants in sports, they are, however, major participants in some sports only. For example basketball has been shown as one of the successful games where blacks have shown higher level of participation both in management and sporting activities (Houlihan 2003). However, this is just one sport and it has not bee experienced in other sports. This success cannot, therefore,e be used to associate success in all sports in breaking inequality and discrimination.

It is evident that inequalities and discrimination has been a major factor structuring the reality of sports for minority groups and blacks not only in the UK, but in other countries as well. Although there has been progress that have been made in mitigating the situation compared to the previous situations, it is worth noting that this progress may have been made only in terms of defining the problem rather than solving it. There has been acceptance of racial discrimination in sports as a major problem that need to be addressed especially by higher echelons in sports authority like Department of Culture, Media, and Sports in the UK and other bodies like Sport England and Sporting Equals. However, the country is miles away from addressing this problem

Although the subject of the racial discrimination in sports remains controversial in different countries, there is little doubt that racial minorities have faced discrimination in sports and most people say that it is an area they feel not so much welcomed to. Blacks and racial minorities have been affected in different perspective in sports landscape which greatly affects their overall participation and success. In summarization, racial discrimination in sports has been observed in the following areas (Houlihan 2003)
Sports institutions
In sports institution, blacks and racial minorities have been discriminated in the following context
They are not well represented in sports administration including the ruling bodies and in the decision making process. In the UK, it has been found out that Asians are under-represented in sports management. They are also under represented in official position in most sports organizations. This has made a prevailing whiteness in sporting organizations and this has set cultural norm of whiteness which trickle from management to the field. This lowers their bargaining power to structure administration of sports institutions.
They are not well represented in players associations
Very few are included in club owners and the controlling committees
 The following forms of racialization existing in sports institutions
There is racial inequality in access to decision making forums
There is racial exclusion in terms of membership to sports association or even clubs thereby limiting their participation on sports
In sports institutions, the following policy recommendations have been made in order to mitigate racial discriminations
There is need to increase access and representation of minority groups including Asians and blacks. This includes giving them more representation in administrative issues  and ruling bodies
There is need to challenge the current normalized nature of whiteness in sports landscape. This can be achieved through media campaigns and increased economic empowerment of minority group in  club ownership
Sporting practices
Blacks and racial minority groups also faces a lot of racial discrimination in sporting practices in the following contexts
Scouting for potential sportsmen and women and consequential recruitment choices
The culture of players
Management of practices and the actual coaching
Sports administration and marketing contracts
Representation
The following forms of racialization exist in sporting practices
There is a racially created connection between racialized attributed, capacity in sports, and the professionalism
There are all forms of racialized abuses which are evident within playing, coaching, and even in spectators
In response to racialization in sporting practices, the following policies recommendations have been proposed
Creating awareness within the sporting arena on the effects of racial discrimination as it undermines spirit of sports.
Putting in place an effective stereotyping policy
Policies that assist in building consensus against all forms of racialized common sense
Ensuring there is tighter observation and adherence to antiracial codes of practices for both players and coaches
There should be policy priority in developing more Asian, Blacks, and other  racial minority coaches and scouts
There should be tight legal actions taken against those who perpetuate racist activities in sporting practices.
It has been established that the low level of participation of blacks and other racial minority groups has been extended to other areas beyond active participations.  It has been experienced in spectator, volunteering, and sports administrations. It has been established that spectators prefer going to games where they find people of their racial background.  For example, it s very rare to find blacks or Asians spectators in sports like Jockey which are believed to be a reserve for the whites. They have expressed fear of racial remarks or treatment like lack of reservation of seats, among other factors that make them keep away from these sports.