Sports as a Means for Social Inclusion.
For human beings, the need for social inclusion is rudimentary. Maslows hierarchy of needs exemplifies this notion. After man has satisfied his basic needs of physiologic, safety and security, he now desires to fulfil the next level of needs love and belongingness and self-esteem (Boeree, 2006). It is inherent in every human being to crave acceptance and belongingness. Social exclusion defies these needs and can be devastating (An introduction Bastian Haslam, 2010 Levett-Jones Lathlean, 2008). Social exclusion can either be financial or poverty-related exclusion from the labour market or exclusion in the social sense, that is, rejection from certain social groups and stigmatization (An introduction Sommerville, 1998). This research will focus on the last context of social exclusion exclusion in the social sense, and to include social inequality, stigma and discrimination.
Exclusion from citizenship in certain social groups, whether through inequality, stigma and discrimination, is more prevalent among the disadvantaged aggregate. The poor, the mentally ill, people with disabilities, ex-prisoners and people with AIDSHIV are only a few of those who are at higher risk for stigmatization and social exclusion. Social exclusion can have many detrimental effects. Researches have shown that social exclusion and social isolation significantly impacts a persons psychosocial and prosocial behaviour (Twenge, Ciarocco, Baumeister, DeWall, Bartels 2007), mental health in the form of depression and psychosis (Barnes, 2004, Bell, 1989), emotion such as with feelings of shame and avoidance (Karim, Chowdhury, Islam, Weiss, 2007), and disruption in mental processes (Baumeister, Twenge, and Nuss, 2002).
Challenging social exclusion is not an easy task. Several methodologies and measures have been employed to promote social inclusion. Twardzicki (2008) investigated the use of performing arts as a means of promoting social inclusion among people with mental health problems and found that it positively affected the subjects mood, confidence and their sense of inclusion. On the other hand, voting was proposed as a means for achieving social inclusion among those with mental illness (Nash, 2002).
he role of sports as an agency for promoting social inclusion, celebrating diversity and promoting equality is a concept that is gaining in popularity. Sports have been correlated with social inclusion as different individuals find numerous potential social growths out of it. There are a number of available literatures on incidences of social exclusion and policies that promote social inclusion among sports organizations.
In the school system, for example, promoting social justice among students with disabilities is implemented through placement of these students into the general physical education classes. In such a way, these students are seen as a contributing member of the social group, promoting equality, forming meaningful relationships and enhancing self-esteem (Place Hodge, 2001). In the same manner, inclusion of sports enthusiasts and athletes characteristics in planning sport activities and events enables sports managers to conduct strategies that aim at the differences among sports enthusiasts and athletes who comprise potential target audiences. Effective determination of social needsdesires and belongingness context requires a sufficient number of audiences, resources to meet the needs of the segment, and the ability to reach these individuals.
However, there are only a few studies that specifically investigated the factors that drive sports in general to encourage social inclusion, and the relationship between sports and social inclusion. At the same time, there are also available body of knowledge on how sports also contribute to the exclusion of some disparaged section of the society. In the article by Cortis (2009), the requirement of some sports to conform to social and cultural norms at times result to the emphasize inequality and exclusion, rather than promote inclusion, as in the case of women. This is supported by Allender, Cowburn and Fosters systematic review of qualitative studies on the reasons and barriers to participating in sports among children and adults. For teen-age girls, ill-fitting uniforms detract them from participating in sports activities. At the same time, gender stereotyping creates a feeling among teen-age girls of being actively marginalized by boys, offering more boy-type activities, and restricting their participation and equipment use during sports activities (Allender et al). Among adults, lack of self confidence, a perception of a gym culture and a sense of being socially disadvantaged prevented them from participating in sports (Allender et al).
It is easy to think that sports can encourage social inclusion among the stigmatized, marginalized and disparaged population. Individuals can feel that they are contributing members of the group and be equals among the group members. However there is also a body of literature that introduces the notion that sports can actually push social exclusion. As such, this research is being undertaken to clarify this gap, and at the same time, outline the factors in sports that build social inclusion.
Aims and Objectives
The purpose of this study is threefold
(i)to describe the athletes perceptions and experiences on social inclusion and exclusion,
(ii) to describe the perceived benefits of social inclusion among athletes, and
(iii) to describe the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion.
Research Questions
Specifically, this research aims to answer the following questions
a. What are the demographic characteristics of the population
b. What are the athletes perceptions on social inclusion and exclusion
d. What are the perceived benefits of social inclusion among athletes
e. What are the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion
Significance of the Study
Politically, it has been considered that sports play a critical role in combating or fighting social exclusion. This research is significant in that it contributes to the good of the society. First, it offers information to the concerned individuals and organizations regarding the factors that encourage engagement in sports activities and the determinants that enable sports to encourage social inclusion. Social inclusion through sports management permits individuals, and sports organizations to enhance programs and policies in order to integrate measures of social inclusion into sports activities. This study is also significant so as to know how these sports activities would affect the individuals regarding their status in the society or the community. Lastly, this research is significant in contributing to the body of literature that illustrate the significance of sports activities as a measure for promoting or encouraging social inclusion.
In terms of sports development, it is believed that the study of the experience of the people in sports activities provide insights about how sport events and sports development projects were provisioned to explore the social forces that governs the manners that encoded meanings used for identity construction by the participants. This study can therefore permit or motivate the society to determine how the participants of sport events in the sport development projects have been utilised as a context in making investments.
Sports and social exclusion
Racism
While involvement in sports is generally deemed as an avenue for promoting social inclusion, it is not infallible and is oftentimes subject to discriminatory activities that support social exclusion. This is exhibited in a number of related cases. One of which was the case of John du Pont, who has who has openly exhibited racial and ethnic discrimination by only supporting the careers of famous white wrestlers but does not express the same intent for black participants (The Philadelphia tribune, 1997). His actions have caused the black wrestlers to lose their opportunity and right to take part in the 1996 Olympics and ultimately resulted to these particular wrestlers to sue du Pont. (The Philadelphia Tribune, 1997).
Football, being a highly competitive sports event, draws a lot of discriminatory incidences due to the nature of fanaticism it receives from its supporters. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is no less susceptible to these incidences. As a sports activity, football games should serve as a bridge between different nations and be used as a positive influence. FIFA believes that discrimination and racism has nothing to do with football, does not tolerate any discriminatory acts and has clear sanctions for such behaviour. In spite of all this, it appears that cases as such have remained rampant. In 2004, an issue related social exclusion was encountered by FIFA when Spanish fans apparently threw unpleasant monkey chants directed towards the black players of the British team during the under-21 football game between England and Spain (FIFA, 2004). During the same year, a similar incident occurred between the fans of Bastia and St. Etienne when fans of the latter team attacked the coloured players of Bastia (Football, 2004). Still, a month before the incident between England and Spain, racists abuse was also observed in a Champions League match between the English club and the Panathinaikos (Football, 2004).
Similar to the issues surrounding racism in the football league, discrimination and exclusion in cricket is mostly spectator initiated, either towards the minority (black and Pakistani) players or to their minority supporters (Malcolm, 2002).
Even in the event of golf, where the main sportsman is African American in the person of Tiger Woods, still experience prejudice and contribute to social exclusion of the marginalized section of the population. The case of Shoal Creek has sparked controversy in 1990 because of its resolve to maintain an all-white membership (Daddario Wigley, 2006). Ten years after opening its doors to black members, in 2000, Shoal Creek has a total of one honorary black member, and one full-paying member (Reeves, 2000).
In British professional soccer, on the other hand, the issue of racism is directed towards the fact that while there is a satisfying number of black players in the league, there is, so far, only one black manager and until 2008, and that the appointment of Herman Ouseley in 2008 to the Football Association council, made him the first and only member of the 116-member council (Jacques, 2009). Similarly, Jeremy Lin, a point guard for the Harvard University Basketball team, has fallen into the racial stereotypical pit. Despite notable achievements in the hard-court i.e. leading his high school team to a state title and being Harvards top scorer, scholarship offers were not forthcoming (On Diverseeducation, 2009).
Gender inequality
The world of sport bore witness to the marginalization of women for a long time. Even as the quest for gender equalization has gained footing during the last two decades, it is still a constant struggle as total equality is still far from being achieved. Major positions in sport organizations, for example, are still mostly held by males (Shaw Frisby, 2006). This, according to Hoeber and Frisby (2001) is due to the fact that sport management has been primarily concerned with producing the winning team or athlete and generating revenue that gender equality most often takes the backseat. At the same time, the more popular sports like baseball and football are still very much male dominated. Of course, the increasing popularity of female basketball and even boxing cannot be underrated.
The case of the Augusta National Golf Club has gained much attention because it maintains an exclusively male membership. There is much debate on whether the Augusta National Golf Club should take down its fences and admit female members. Martha Burk and the National Council of Womens Organizations cried foul over this policy, arguing that it denies women of valuable opportunities, both cultural and social (Sheeley, 2002 Daddario . Wigley, 2006). On the other hand, the Independent Womens Forum (IWF), expressed respect for this right of Augusta National Golf Club as a privately operated golf club (IWF, 2002). Wimbledon in 2006, determined that female tennis players are worthy of lesser compensation than males for the reason being that male tennis matches tend to be longer than that of females (Wimbledon, 2006).
On a parallel circumstance, males also experience exclusion from all-female sports such as synchronized swimming (Synchronized, 2006).
Other discrimination issues
There are other issues of discrimination surrounding sport and other athletic activities. Such is the case of weight discrimination in the fitness industry. Weight stereotyping and stigma transcends into the fitness industry by through similar reasoning as with issues of hiring, promotability and compensation in other industries (Sartorre and Cunningham, 2007). In a series of experiments conducted by Sartorre and Cunningham (2007), qualified overweight people were stereotyped as lazy and less fit for a fitness position were perceived as less desirable, and were less likely to receive hiring recommendation.
Anti-discriminatory and social inclusion policies
The anti-discriminatory facet is also an essential factor covered by the social inclusion context. In the sports arena, a number of factors had been developed in order to ensure that policies in sports events are anti-discriminatory and promote social inclusion. For instance, the Olympic Charter (International Olympic Committee (IOC)) contains the Fundamental Principles of Olympism. In this regulation, sport is considered as a human right, therefore, discriminatory practices and doings are prohibited.
In the same manner, other institutions also give emphasis on anti-discrimination and social inclusion in their sport events and activities. For instance, The UNESCO Sports Charter of Physical Education and Sport (2007) also uphold the same principles. This provision prohibits advocates social inclusion by according each individual full opportunity to access sports activities and physical education, without discrimination to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other consideration (UNESCO, 2007 2-3).
The European Sport for All Charter is yet another sport agency forbids discriminatory acts and promotes access to sports facilities and activities without prejudice to an individuals colour, race, religion, sex, language, social origin, political opinion, minority group or property (Burchfield, 2006). This charter further extends the social inclusion policy by according the opportunity to engage in sports to the gifted vis-a-vis the disadvantaged or disabled individuals or groups in an effective manner (Council of Europe, 1992). The same principle is contained in the Sports Convention against Apartheid in Sports, social inclusion is encouraged and discrimination based on a persons political affiliation, religion or race is prohibited. This is embodied within the Olympic Charter (Burchfield, 2006).
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), while not speaking of sports in a particular sense, endorses the rights for education and participation on cultural life (Burchfield, 2006). In other sports contexts, the provision is directed to particular or specific groups. Therefore, it can be construed as inclusive of equal access and participation in sport activities through the three aspects mentioned. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Anti-Discrimination against Female athletes (CEDAW), on the other hand, is clearly directed towards female athletes and sports participants. In one study of this social inclusion aspect, it has been stressed that female athletes should be given equal rights and opportunities as men, specifically in taking part on sports events and physical education. Moreover, female athletes have the right to partake in any recreational activity and other aspects of cultural life like men or male counterparts (Burchfield, 2006).
FIFA, on the other hand, had shown a certain level of involvement to discriminatory incidents over the past years by means of enforcing its code of ethics. Some of these cases included the racial and physical abuse to Arsenals Thierry Henry where PSV Eindhoven gave a 14,000 pound fine in 2002, the racists behaviour of the fans cost Slovakian FA 27,000 pounds for racists behaviour during a World Cup qualifier game racist chants directed at British black players and the burning of the English flag led to an 11,000 pound fine for the Macedonian FA and in 2004, Hungarys Ferencravos fined 25,000 pounds for the monkey chants directed to Marck McCammon and Paul Ifill of Millwall (Harris Newman, 2004).
Social Inclusion
Sports and social inclusion
The term social inclusion is primarily utilized to determine how individual can be perceived to belong in a specific group, which may consider their age, gender, race, and even their sport activities. The concept of social inclusion is viewed in diverse ways. Some thoughts on social inclusion adhere to the notion or idea which may perceive to be natural and evident to those who are willing to accept it, but in reality this notion is only an invention or artefact of a certain society or culture. In this manner the proposition is that social inclusion are considered as the choice of human rather than the laws of nature of society, where humans create the social world through conceptualizations and interactions, attitudes, and acceptances (Uskali, 2002). Some conceptions that characterize and describe the meaning of social inclusion include gender, class and race. Beyond these basic classifications, inequality, stigma and discrimination place certain population groups (women, disabled, race and colour, political and religious affiliations, addicts, etc) at a social disadvantage.
Social inclusion involves the creation and maintenance of a social bond between the individual and the society, as well as the individuals capability to exercise their choices and preferences (Buckmaster Thomas, 2009). According to Tuomela and Balzer (1999) collective acceptance is the key to the inclusion of many social entities and properties. The social context of desire, acceptance and belongingness, the creation of a bond between the participants and other stakeholders, and the ability to participate in sports events out of ones own choice and preference plays a vital role in the promotion of social inclusion through sports.
Sports and inclusion of marginalized group
Through the use of the context of social desire and belongingness many sport activities and events producers are able to include efficiency and specialization into their operations. By designing certain programs that adheres to the needs of their participants and audience, sport activities and events can align their offerings with the specific needs of their included participants, resulting to better results (Moschis, 1994).
Several authors have noted the interrelation of sports and social inclusion. Specifically, mega sports events are said to be major contributors of social inclusion.
Sports programs have the ability to supplement existing approaches to social disadvantage (Mynard, Howie, Collister, 2009). People with physical disabilities find that participating in sports activities reinstates their membership in the active and competitive group (Robertson, 2003). While Walseth (2006), in her interview with 21 young Norwegian Muslim women, found that engaging in sports contribute to these womens sense of belonging, and gives them a sense of refuge.
Sports and inclusion of team members
The context of sports has been a vital aspect of global culture and society. It diverts language and culture barriers into universal eagerness and an avenue for belongingness (Tourism, 2009). Sports seem to be an effective event for making people feel that they belong in the group due to the wide array of sport activities that they can participate in. Social inclusion as an aspect of sports is based on the theoretical belief that every athlete has different attitudes, perceptions and purchasing behaviours. Hence, athletes with similar need and desires and preferences must be grouped together apart from other groups with other preferences. Furthermore, it is a well-accepted belief that sports activities are intended to promote not only sportsmanship, but also belongingness.
According to Shank (2002), individuals who participate in the sports activities consider themselves as individual that belongs to a specific group of people. The people that surrounds them make them feel secured in a way that it encourages them to do their best to stay and be included in that particular social group. Team-building and team involvement enhances the sense of welcome and inclusion that accompanies being a part of a team (Mynard, Howie, Collister, 2009).
Therefore, it is imperative that the world of sports be cognizant of the different individual characteristics of players and athletes, and ensure that each individual be given n opportunity to participate in any sport he desires.
For instance in order to make inclusion to athletes or their participants and spectators, sport events try to determine the desire of the people involve. For their part, they wish to define social desire as states that are analogous to those of hunger and thirst. These social need and desires have their origins in the social situation, as the term implies, rather than from within the individual. The needs can be satisfied by behaviours, and something paralleling deprivation is thought to take place. Need and desires, once stimulated (i.e., not satisfied), direct behaviour, leading to need satisfaction. In other words, these behaviours can be considered to be motivated. When these needs have been identified, sport activities and events try to meet these need and desires and after which they try to include their participants based on their need and desires.
Other initiatives to engender social inclusion are through increasing the access of women to public, commercial and community sport facilities and events (Cortis, 2009) and to increase availability of sport events for a diversified population, including the marginalized and those with disability (Harada Siperstein, 2009). The NCAA , for instance , have sourced the expertise of a female to head its committee on diversity and inclusion.
Methodology
This section will present the basic strategies that the researcher have employed in order to develop evidence that is accurate and interpretable. The research design incorporates some of the most significant decisions of the researcher in that it entails the choice of which design best fits the study purpose and answer the research questions.
Research Design
This study used a combination qualitative and quantitative research design, both of which have their own normal and standard approaches and techniques to follow.
The qualitative approach was utilized as a method for the pilot study to collect subjective data from the sample and is particularly advantageous in studying various features of a definite point where there are emphasis on the explanation of the sources and even the author. For this research, the qualitative approach through participant interview was used to describe the samples perception of social exclusion and inclusion in relation to sport, as well as the perceived benefits of inclusion on the sample. The data collected were segregated into similar categories and used in the development of the instrument for empirical testing.
The quantitative approach utilized for this research is a descriptive design specifically to explore the perceptions of social inclusion and its benefits among athletes. The advantage of using a quantitative approach is in the empirical testing of data, thereby ascertaining the validity and reliability of results. While the interview results yielded subjective data, this design, in turn, yielded numerical and objective data.
Study Participants
The population under study are athletes from amateur and professional leagues in the region. The pilot study was conducted through interviews with 10 selected collegiate basketball players. For the main study, a total of 120 amateur and professional leagues were approached to be a part of the study. Their names and information were collected, ensuring confidentiality at all times. Random sampling was used to ensure that a representative sample will be drawn.
Instruments
This research used a questionnaire to guide the interview for the qualitative data collection process. The questionnaire contained six open-ended questions on the athletes perception of social exclusion and exclusion in relation to sport, and perceived benefits of inclusion on the sample (Appendix A)
For the quantitative data, a self-constructed item likert-type questionnaire was developed by the researcher based on the literature review and the results of the pilot study, including items on discrimination and social exclusion, benefits of social inclusion and determinants of social inclusion in sports (Appendix B). The questionnaire is composed of four parts. Part I, informed consent, contains the details of the study and the informed consent, and the profile of the participants. This includes name, age, gender, and number of years as athlete. Part II-A contains questions regarding social exclusion. Part II-B contains questions on social inclusion. Part III contains questions to determine the benefits of social inclusion in sport. This questionnaire was pilot-tested to 5 collegiate athletes to determine content and construct validity. All items were rated as readable, understandable and free of ambiguous items.
Results and Discussion
Results
In this section, the demographic characteristics of the respondents have been tackled.
Table 1. Frequency and percentage breakdown Gender.
fMale6453.33Female5646.67Total 120100.00
Table 1 shows that 53 of the sample is female, while the remainder 47 are males.
Table 2. Frequency and percentage breakdown Age.
fBelow 185142.5018-204537.5021-301210.0031-401210.0041-5000.0050 and above00.00Total 120100.00
On age, it may be gleaned that 42 of the sample are below 18 years old 37 are within the 18-20 years old bracket and 21-30 and 31-40 years old categories each received 10.
Table 3. Frequency and percentage breakdown Race.
fAmerican Indian Alaskan Native1210.00Black African American75.83Asian2621.67Hispanic or Latino 3226.67White4335.83Total 120100.00
On the frequency and percentage breakdown by race, the sample is predominantly White at 36. 27 are Hispanic Lation 22 are Asian 10 are American IndianAlaskan and 6 are composed of Black African Americans.
Table 4. Frequency and percentage breakdown Tenure.
fLess than 1 year1210.001-5 years 4638.336-10 years1310.8311-15 years3730.8316-20 years1210.0020 years00.00Total 120100.00
For the succeeding tables, the following scale has been used to interpret the means
1.0-1.49 Never
1.50 2.49 Rarely
2.50 3.49 Sometimes
3.50 4.49 Often
4.50 5.00 Very Often
Table 5. Descriptive Statistics Social Exclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation 1. Denied participation because of skin color race 2.871.232. Refused acceptance because of affiliation 3.101.313. Denied participation because of gender2.201.254. Denied participation because of weight3.261.285. Denied participation because of other discriminatory issues (pls. specify) ____________________ 3.091.236. Called names pertaining to race 3.041.257. Called names pertaining to gender 2.931.298. Called names pertaining to affiliation 4.090.869. Called names pertaining to weight 2.811.2410. Called names pertaining to other discriminatory issues (pls. specify) ____________________3.091.2711. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by team members3.091.2412. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by sport management (coach assistant coach, manager etc)2.981.1913. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by fans spectators3.091.3214. Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by other individuals (pl. specify) ______________________-3.391.12
The following item on social exclusion was experienced often Called names pertaining to affiliation (X4.09, sd0.86). Next are the social exclusion items experienced sometimes Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by other individuals (pl. specify) (X3.39, sd1.12) Denied participation because of weight (X3.26, sd1.28) Refused acceptance because of affiliation (X3.10, sd1.31) Denied participation because of other discriminatory issues (X3.09, sd1.23) Called names pertaining to other discriminatory issues (X3.09, sd1.27) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by team members (X3.09, sd1.24) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by fans spectators (X3.09, sd1.32) Called names pertaining to race (X3.04, sd1.25) Witnessed discrimination of other individuals by sport management (coach assistant coach, manager etc) (X2.98, sd1.19) Called names pertaining to gender (X2.93, sd1.29) and Denied participation because of skin color race (X2.87, sd1.23). One item was experienced rarely Called names pertaining to weight (X2.81 sd1.24) Denied participation because of gender (X2.20, sd1.25).
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics Social Inclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation1. I always have a sense of belongingness in my team3.970.932. My team always makes me feel welcome3.970.933. My team listens to my opinions and suggestions3.800.834. My team considers my opinions suggestions when making a decision4.080.825. I am regarded as an equal in my team4.180.876. I feel secured when I am playing with my team4.021.027. I am satisfied with the way my team treats me.3.700.798. I do not feel discriminated by some members of my team3.931.079. I feel welcome in this team3.760.9610. I communicate well with my team4.130.8511. I have not felt threatened by the actions of some team members4.130.8512. I do not feel that some team members are threatened by me.3.870.87
All of the items on social inclusion were experienced often, as follows I am regarded as an equal in my team (X4.18, sd0.87) I have not felt threatened by the actions of some team members (X4.13, sd0.85) My team considers my opinions suggestions when making a decision (X4.08, sd0.82) I feel secured when I am playing with my team (X4.02, sd1.02) I always have a sense of belongingness in my team (X3.97, sd0.93) My team always makes me feel welcome (X3.97, sd0.93) I do not feel discriminated by some members of my team (X3.93, sd1.07) I do not feel that some team members are threatened by me (X3.87, sd0.87) My team listens to my opinions and suggestions (X3.80, sd0.83) My team listens to my opinions and suggestions (X3.80, sd0.83) I feel welcome in this team (X3.76, sd0.96) I am satisfied with the way my team treats me (X3.70, sd0.79)
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics Benefits of Social Inclusion.
ResponseMean Standard Deviation1. I am confident with my actions4.360.672. I do not feel shy when voicing my opinions4.520.613. I always engage in conversation with my team and other people4.530.504. I feel content4.570.605. I rarely worry4.260.636. I am always motivated4.620.607. I am always in the mood to play4.090.798. I am always ready to participate in the game4.040.829. I rarely feel lazy.4.530.5910. I communicate with my team4.420.6811. I enjoy what Im doing4.150.8112. I do not feel forced to play the game4.360.6713. I am proud of my team4.200.7714.
I bond with my team outside of the game4.050.83
The following items were met with strong agreement I am always motivated (X4.62, sd0.60) I feel content (X4.57, sd0.60) I always engage in conversation with my team and other people (X4.53, sd0.50) I do not feel shy when voicing my opinions (X4.52, sd0.61) I am confident with my actions (X4.36, sd0.67) I rarely worry (X4.26, sd0.63) I am always in the mood to play (X4.09, sd0.79) I am always ready to participate in the game (X4.04, sd0.82) I rarely feel lazy (X4.53, sd0.59). On the other hand, the following were met with agreement I communicate with my team (X4.42, sd0.68) I enjoy what Im doing (X4.15, sd0.81) I do not feel forced to play the game (X4.36, sd0.67) I am proud of my team (X4.20, sd0.77) and I bond with my team outside of the game (X4.05, sd0.83).
Discussion
Social inclusion of sports viewers and enthusiasts is also another aspect that needs to be addressed. Inclusion as a marketing strategy refers to the practice of dividing the total market into several groups, like their field of specialization on sports, where the preferences of each athlete on sport activities and events context are all taken into account (Mynard et al, 2009 Moore, Petty, Palich Longnecker, 2008). This strategy appears to be an effective tool primarily in addressing athletes and even spectators on football sports or the Olympics per se. This is mainly because athletes of this type are typically huge in size and highly diversified. Accordingly, constructing athletes through the use social context of desire and belonging pertaining to sport activities and events efforts provided to a group of potential audience based on various characteristics. These characteristics may include demographic, geographic, lifestyle and behavioural data. Hence, athletes constructs are typically based on age, income, occupation, gender and behavioural aspects of the participants as viewed by the sport activities and events. In such a way, sports viewers and enthusiasts as well as the athletes, are being constructed with their specific needs and desires including their needs to be a part of certain groups in the society.
The results of the current study and the literature review clearly establishes, that even 21st century, social exclusion still occurs everyday, even in sport where individuals are supposed to be given the opportunity participate, be a contributing member of the team and to excel without prejudice. However, there appears to be a gap in the implementation of anti-discriminatory policies among the sport organizations. One of which is the inadequate enforcement of the factors developed. As indicated by the authors of previously cited document, there had been a number of similar instances when FIFA had not actively involved itself to discriminatory incidents. This made the football organization appear too lenient for the responsibility. The factors may be developed, but the committee does not seem to show strength in implementing them. Moreover, violations are usually settled through the payment of fines, which football teams and nations can easily provide.
While sport regulating bodies try to battle social exclusion through anti-discriminatory policies, there are limited body of knowledge that outlines the initiatives and processes for which to encourage and generate social inclusion in sport.
Inclusion of sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups in sports is a potent sports management strategy for satisfying consumer preferences of sport activities and events objectives. Lifestyle analysis involves identifying sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups activities, interests, and opinions. Activities are classified as sports, work, entertainment, and hobbies. Interests include job, house, family, fashion, and food. Media selection can be geared to specific sports viewers and enthusiasts. Finally, sport activities and events management may be able to develop improved multidimensional perspectives of key target, to develop a more lifelike portrait or profile of customers, and to construct sports activities based on this portrait. The success of social inclusion of sports enthusiasts, athletes and marginalized groups can only be measured when identified groups of individuals can be reached by a marketing mix aimed at that segment.
People belong to a society in which ideology is structured and developed through different social factors and elements. Social inclusion in sport activities and events need to be emphasized because sport managers have a very complex accountability to athletes and enthusiasts alike because it is the only way that sports commissions will attract more athletes and support from fans and other stakeholders. There is a need for awareness of the factors that drive inclusion in this realm.
Sport activities and events used these social concepts in different ways. First, they use this to identify the needs and desires of the sports enthusiasts and athletes in order to group them or construct them into specific groups. Furthermore, sport activities and events used these social concepts in order to identify whether the identified groups are socially accepted and that the identified desires are being given successfully. These enter a sense of belongingness among these individuals and enhance their sport activities and events potentials. The social concepts of desire and belongingness are also being used to ensure that sport activities and events adhere to the standards of each socially constructed sports enthusiasts and athletes. All in all it can be said that to be able to meet the needs of the consumers, sport activities and events must consider the sense of belongingness and social context of desire among target sports enthusiasts and athletes.
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